Information Science: Nature and Function – Chapter 3 Study Notes
Information Science: Nature and Function – Study Notes
Objectives recap
Identify and define the three main sources of information science.
Explain why the document is an important area of interest to the information scientist.
Identify the technologies involved in documentation and situate them within a historical context.
Relate library science and computer science to information science.
Origins of Information Science
Information science originates from the time humans began asking questions to create and discover answers about the world.
Traces from early signaling with hands or pebbles to pencils, ink, paper, books, and the printing press, continuing to present-day computers.
Information science is as old as life itself, but the study of information and its creation, discovery, and use (especially aided by computers) was born in the 20th century. This view is supported by Hahn & Buckland (1998); McCrank (2002).
Three main sources (related to each other) form present-day information science:
Documentation (record of human thought and accounting)
Computation (counting)
Communication (sharing information for the common good)
The combination of these sources constitutes the knowledge sciences, since they use data/information to create knowledge. This integration is further explored in Chapter 13.
The Document
A document is a physical object used to move facts and ideas from one place to another (transmission), to raise awareness, and to extend awareness (information) to understanding.
A document augments our capacity to communicate; it enables data/information/knowledge to cross distances and times (ancient scrolls to modern emails).
Computer scientists define a document as text (symbols/words/data) that is part of programs that tell machines what to do (applications). Under this view, a computer program itself can be considered a document.
The document is a technical tool for transmission and transfer of data, information, and knowledge, and encompasses entities such as language, writing, printing, the book, and the library as an institution that handles procurement, safeguarding (archives), and distribution of these entities.
Context note: The present discussion emphasizes how documents move knowledge across time and space, linking old and new forms of transmission (e.g., notes to emails).
Alphabet and Language
Language and writing are critical for transmission of ideas.
Evidence of language existence goes back to antiquity (ca. 8000\,\text{BC}). Language predates writing by thousands of years; signs/symbols are older than writing as we know it.
Linguistics studies language as a science linked to information science. If information is a state of awareness, language is the physical representation of that state in the brain. This linkage will be explored further in a later chapter on communications.
Writing
Writing stores information and knowledge; it evolved from pebbles on surfaces to liquids, smoke, and odors as conveyances.
Ink (invented by the Chinese) around 200\,\text{BC} has been a key tool in record keeping (documentation).
Paper development: ancient origins in China; papermaking in Europe during the Middle Ages; the present form of paper emerged in the 17^{\text{th}}\text{ century}. The specific note mentions circa 866\,\text{AD} for early paper development.
Alphabet origins: the origin of writing began with the alphabet in Ugarit (in modern Syria) during the second millennium BC and evolved into Phoenician, the ancestor of modern alphabets. This evolution is illustrated by the Phoenician alphabet (Fig. 3.3).
Printing
Printing is the reproduction of an image via a printing surface, typically by contact impression that transfers ink.
The art of printing dates back centuries, with possible origins in China and in 15th-century Germany, and is documented in standard references.
The invention of the printing press and the Gutenberg Bible (German, 1440) significantly aided the transfer of human awareness and understanding. Movable type appeared around 1450, increasing distribution of information.
The Book
The book is a physical object and a document. It is a long written or printed matter or record.
The codex originated in the first century and consists of folded sheets sewn along one edge; this allowed scrolling and flexible reading.
The book as a record of thought, spirit, and work, originated in ancient civilizations (Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian) and represents a technological innovation in printing that shaped record keeping and communication.
The book demonstrates how humans used technology-tools to augment communication by providing a physical form for thoughts and knowledge to meet environmental demands.
Figures referenced (Fig. 3.1–3.4) illustrate papermaking, the evolution of paper, and the level of detail in information presentation.
Sharing the Document
The Library: A library is a physical place and an institution run by people for social/educational purposes.
Early libraries date to monasteries and churches in the 14th century; famous libraries include Alexandria, the Vatican, the British Library, and the Library of Congress.
Before libraries, storytellers carried documents in their heads.
Origins of libraries: Ramses II established a library of sacred literature in Thebes (Egypt), ca. 1309-1237\,\text{BC}. Early libraries flourished in Nurchev (ancient Assyria). The Library of Alexandria (c. 300\,\text{BC}) aimed to preserve and extend Greek civilization.
Librarianship: Librarians actively ensure that data/information/knowledge are available to seekers. They work with information scientists to manage resources.
The library includes several technical services that support public, school, and academic institutions, plus archival and special libraries.
Technical Services
Acquisition: identifying and adding new volumes to holdings. (Wiegand & Davis, 1994)
Cataloging: identifying and describing material (books, journals, etc.).
Access Services
Collection Management: maintaining traditional collections, addressing new problems, developing opportunities.
Circulation: making materials available to users.
Reference and Information Services: helping clientele use resources efficiently.
Resource Management: planning/operating/controlling human and material resources in the library.
Library Science
Library science is the knowledge and skills by which recorded information is selected, acquired, organized, and utilized to meet information demands of a community of users (ALA Glossary, 1983).
It is one of the information sciences.
The five laws of library science (proposed by S. R. Ranganathan, 1957) as norms/guides to good practice:
1.\text{ Books are for use;}
2.\text{ To every reader his or her book;}
3.\text{ To every book its reader;}
4.\text{ Save the time of the reader, and of the staff;}
5.\text{ A library is a growing organism.}
Library science and information science are often joined in practice and theory, akin to medicine and medical science.
Origins of Counting and Computation
Counting is fundamental to testing, measuring, and indicating performance (e.g., in education, sports, money).
Information has origins in counting; humans use bodies and units of measure (inches, feet, miles, etc.) to quantify and understand the world.
Computer Science
Computer science can be defined as:
The study of computers, including hardware and software design, with broad disciplines like artificial intelligence and software engineering.
The systematic study of computing systems, including theories, design methods, algorithms, testing, verification, and knowledge representation.
Computers are essential subsystems of augmented data, information, and knowledge (ADIK) systems: they process data from events, aid transmission, expand awareness, and support decision-making.
The discipline is studied further in Chapter 7 (in this text).
Communication Science
Defining communication science is complex, spanning symbols, language, understanding, interaction, binding community, intention, media, and the Web, among others.
Focus here is on how information is acquired, transmitted, and how computers aid the transfer function (refer to Chapter 9).
Some Shared Views of Information Science
Information science is a science about asking questions and applying established methods to understand data/information/knowledge and to design/evaluate systems.
Several leading thinkers offer definitions:
Harold Borko (1962): Information science is a theoretical discipline concerned with applications of mathematics, system design, and information processing concepts; interdisciplinary, involving librarians, logicians, linguists, engineers, mathematicians, and behavioral scientists; results in information systems; explicates foundational concepts for existing systems. (Quoted in Hahn & Buckland, 1998)
Tefko Saracevic (1970): Shannon's theory of communication is fundamental when applied to information systems and their evaluation.
Glynn Harmon (1971): Information science as a sister discipline to cybernetics, semantics, linguistics, decision theory, game theory, documentation, and information retrieval; emerged around World War II.
Roger R. Flynn (1997): Relates the science to the information-question/answer process (creation, coding, manipulation of data) and problem solving.
Vickery & Vickery (2004): Information science studies communications and information in society; six focus points: (1) behavior of people as generators/sources/recipients/users and channel agents; (2) quantitative study of message populations; (3) semantic organization of messages and channels; (4) storage/analysis/retrieval problems; (5) organization of information systems and their performance/transfer; (6) social context of information transfer, including economics and politics.
Chaim Zins (Israel): Five-year study showing interest centered on application of technology (especially computers) and how technology influences management of data/information/knowledge, and its societal/cultural impact, including impacts on all organisms and objects.
The present text defines information science as the search for laws and principles in analyzing, designing, and evaluating ADIK systems (environments of people, technology, and procedures) that augment human capabilities in dealing with decisions and problem solving. It emphasizes tools, methods, and technology that help study, account for, estimate, and relate experiences and share them with others.
Two models of information science:
Interrelated information sciences via contributions from humans and technology.
Technology-centric view emphasizing the impact on individual and culture.
The book uses the ADIK metaphor (augmented data, information, and knowledge) to develop laws/principles governing analysis, design, and evaluation of these systems.
SUMMARY (integrated view)
Humans have long sought to understand themselves and the physical world, developing tools to account for experiences and iteratively improving tools and their use.
Information science studies how best to use tools/technology to address common, individual, and societal problems.
Library science focuses on organizing and retrieving records of the past and present; computer science increases counting, accounting, invention, and engineering of environments to aid decision-making and problem solving; communications focus on spreading thought and understanding across time and space.
There are multiple models of information science, with emphasis either on integrated information sciences (human/tech contributions) or technology-driven societal impact; the ADIK framework provides a unifying metaphor for studying and improving information systems.
EXERCISES (for reflection and application)
1) Suppose no textbooks existed for your courses. What problems would you face, and how would this affect your understanding?
2) In what sense could things in a museum be considered documents?
3) How would one best explain the relationship between library, computer, communication, and information science?
4) How can film be a source of study by information scientists?
5) What is the relationship between information science and the information sciences?
6) What commonalities exist among the various definitions of information science? What are their weaknesses/strengths?
7) Is the distinction between information science and the information sciences justified?
8) How do transmission and communication relate to each other, if at all?
9) What problems do information scientists face in defining their science (if they do)?
II The Science and Structure of an ADIK System
Epigraph (poetic reflection): “Birth is the start of information; death the end. From then to now, symbols command; Symbols give essence to presence; Through presence, meaning, - Anthony Debons”
Side note: The chapter also includes a cartoon caption: “I thought these video games had more action.” (an example of everyday ADIK interactions with technology and media)
The narrative underscores that ADIK systems are human-technology hybrids designed to augment awareness, understanding, and decision-making.
Connections to prior chapters and real-world relevance
Builds on Chapter 1’s concept of information and places documents, libraries, and computers as integral pieces of information work.
Connects library science with information science and computer science as complementary disciplines contributing to how society creates, stores, and uses knowledge.
Highlights real-world implications: how information systems affect access, equity, efficiency, and governance, and how technology impacts culture and social context (economics, politics).
Key concepts and terminology to remember
Information science: study of information creation, discovery, use, and its augmentation by computers; cross-disciplinary with library science, computer science, and communication.
Document: any medium that transmits information across time/space (ancient scrolls to emails); viewed as a tool for communication.
ADIK: augmented data, information, and knowledge — a framework for understanding modern information systems.
The three main sources of information science: documentation, computation, communication. 3 sources.
The six focus points of information transfer in Vickery & Vickery: (1) behavior; (2) population of messages; (3) semantic organization; (4) storage/analysis/retrieval; (5) organization of information systems; (6) social context/economics/politics. 6 points.
The five laws of library science (Ranganathan): five normative principles to guide practice. 5 laws.
The historical milestones mentioned with years/eras: antiquity language (~8000\,\text{BC}), ink invention (~200\,\text{BC}), paper development (~866\,\text{AD} and 17^{\text{th}}\text{ century} paper form), codex origin (1st century), Gutenberg Bible (1440), movable type (1450), Ramses II library (~1309-1237\,\text{BC}), Library of Alexandria (ca. 300\,\text{BC}).
Notes on structure and figures mentioned
Figure references serve to illustrate paper development, alphabet evolution, and library structure (Figures 3.1–3.5).
Main structural units discussed: The Document, The Library, Librarianship, Technical Services, Library Science, and the ADIK system.
Practical implications and philosophical considerations
Information as a social good: sharing information for the common good is a core motivation for information science and communication.
Technology’s impact on society: Zins’ perspective emphasizes how computational tools and data systems influence cultural and societal outcomes.
The balance between preservation (archives) and access (circulation, reference) in libraries raises ethical questions about censorship, equity, and the digital divide.
The notion of information science as a science implies the search for generalizable laws and principles; however, the field also respects the contextual and societal dimensions of information flow.
Quick reference: LaTeX-formatted numbers and dates used in notes
Antiquity evidence of language: 8000\,\text{BC}
Ink invention: 200\,\text{BC}
Paper development reference: 866\,\text{AD}; present paper form in 17^{\text{th}}\text{ century}
Codex origin: 1^{\text{st}}\,\text{century}
Gutenberg Bible: 1440
Movable type: 1450
Ramses II library: 1309-1237\,\text{BC}
Early library of Alexandria: 300\,\text{BC}
The five laws: 5 laws
The six focus points: 6 points
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