Self: Cognitive representations/schemas of a person, including all information about oneself; also known as self-concept.
Self-recognition develops around 18-24 months of age and continues throughout life.
Cultural Influences on Self-Concept
Independent View of the Self
Defines self through internal thoughts, feelings, and actions, not influenced by others.
Recognizes oneself as the primary source of influence over behavior.
Values independence and uniqueness.
Common in many Western cultures
Interdependent View of the Self
Defines self through relationships with others.
Acknowledges that others' thoughts, feelings, and actions affect one's behavior.
Values connectedness and interdependence.
Uniqueness is frowned upon.
Common in many African, Asian, Latin, and other non-Western cultures.
Differences exist within cultures; not all Westerners are independent, and not all non-Westerners are interdependent.
Self-Esteem
Overall evaluation people have of themselves.
Affective or emotional reaction (positive or negative) toward oneself.
Motivates perseverance in tough times and helps face challenges and threats.
Can be protective and overly optimistic about the future, and a salve/healer regarding the past.
Social Identity
Part of one’s self-concept based on membership in a culturally defined social group (e.g., national, religious, political, age, health/developmental status, sexual orientation, race/ethnicity).
Sexual Identity
Part of worldview/self-concept, including individual attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs regarding sexuality, sexual orientation, romantic attraction, and related roles.
Gay/Lesbian* Identity Development
Sexual Identity of non-heterosexuals (including LGBTQ, Queer, and Allies)
ID Confusion: Questioning own sexual identity (e.g., Who am I?)
ID Comparison: Recognizing potential for self-identification (e.g., I may be gay).
ID Tolerance: ID recognition, but may hide from others (e.g., I probably am gay).
ID Acceptance: Accept identity; ready to “come out.”
ID Pride: Express sexual identity openly, but may still dichotomize/see world as gay vs. straight.
ID Synthesis: Integrate sexual identity with other aspects of Self, so no more “us & them.”
Racial & Cultural Identity Development [RCID]
I. Conformity: Preference for dominant culture.
II. Dissonance: Challenge to one’s cultural beliefs.
III. Resistance & Immersion: Completely espousing minority/subculture values, etc., in rejection of dominant culture.
IV. Introspection: Release anger at dominant group, redirecting energy to understanding Self-ID & others’ IDs.
V. Integrative Awareness: Achieving security in Self, accepting positive & negative elements of one’s culture and others’ (i.e., dominant & subcultures).
Racial Identity
Part of worldview that incorporates individual’s attitudes, perceptions, & beliefs about their racial group in relation to others (especially the majority).
Awareness of belonging to a racial group.
Level of personal identification with racial group’s attitudes, preferences, norms, traditions, etc.
Primarily influenced by culture (especially socialization).
Racial identity influences how one relates to oneself, people of one’s cultural group, people of other cultural groups, and the dominant culture.
Racial Identity Models
Developmental Focus
Internal processes that shift one from an imposed to an acquired identity (with Time, Experience).
Most often associated with psychological health and/or coping/maladjustment.
Social Identity Focus
Social comparison models focused on enhancing (maintaining) self-esteem & self-perceptions.
Most often associated with behavioral outcomes.
Afrocentric Focus
Developmental models that emphasize the degree to which Black/African-centered identity is endorsed & expressed.
Development Issues Regarding Racial Identity
Consistent with key elements of identity development (e.g., Erikson)
Identity Achievement: Status reflecting exploration of & commitment to an identity.
Identity Moratorium: Represents ongoing exploration of ID without commitment to a specific identity.
Identity Foreclosure: When individuals have clarity about their ethnicity but haven’t explored this part of the self-concept.
Identity Diffusion: When an individual has not explored ID, nor developed a clear understanding of identity-related issues.
Historical View on Racial Identity
Foundational Social Psychology (e.g., G. Allport; K. Lewin) & Symbolic Interactionism (e.g., C.H. Cooley; G.H. Mead)
Clark & Clark Doll Studies (Clark & Clark, 1939; 1947)
Level & sources of self-esteem in Black children were critically examined in a series of studies.
Basis for Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education
Supreme Court Justices concluded Black children had low self-esteem because of internalized racism in segregated schools.
Did the doll and color preferences actually demonstrate internalized racism? Not exactly.
Did not distinguish racial awareness & racial identity
Prompted development of age-appropriate racial ID models
Research with Racial Identity
Racial Identity can have positive and/or negative effects on psychological well-being.
Strong racial identity:
Can buffer against discriminatory experiences.
Can heighten sensitivity to racial experiences.
Can make one more vulnerable to race-based evaluation & rejection –OR– community/solidarity.
One moves from an imposed self-hate identity… then on to an acquired pro-Black identity
Legacy of slavery & institutional racism as opposing forces
Revised model has 4 ID statuses rather than stages
One does not have to move through each identity status
Four Statuses of Nigrescence
Pre-Encounter
Encounter
Immersion-Emersion
Internalization
Pre-Encounter
Typically, Identity shaped by internalized racism
Low Salience
Black (race) is not central to identity
Social Stigma
Black is a burden
Spotlight anxiety
Anti-Black Attitudes (self-hate), may be implicit
Black is a negative reference group
Eurocentric (Assimilation), also may be implicit
Eurocentric norms & values idealized
Black identity & values de-emphasized
Encounter
Event(s) that challenge or contradict previous beliefs
Single powerful event (Rodney King/Trayvon Martin)
Series of events linked together (e.g., repeat police stops)
Encounter that challenges low salience
Being called racial slur
Encounter that challenges social stigma
Identification with a Black mentor
Encounter that challenges anti-Black attitudes
Encountering counter-stereotype
Encounter that challenges Eurocentric beliefs
Learning Black history
Encounter Details
Cognitive Dissonance (CD) Occurs
CD is the discomfort feeling when we hold beliefs/attitudes that are incompatible, or we behave in ways that threaten Self-concept
Attempt to resolve discrepancy or dissonance
Cannot stay in encounter
So, one can return to pre-encounter OR move forward to the next status (typically, immersion/emersion)
Immersion-Emersion
Immerse oneself in Black experiences
Friends, literature, schools, art, history
Can be superficial (clothing, hairstyle)
Can be all-encompassing (change in name, political groups, social networks, etc.)
Time of intense emotionality
Anger over racism & racist experiences
Shame over previous pre-encounter beliefs
Pro-Black & Anti-White stance
Typical view: All things Black are good, and all things White are bad
Internalization
Having Identity as more open & expansive
Empowered by Black identity, but less hostile toward Whites
Negotiate relationships on an individual basis rather than group generalizations
Psychological mechanisms to facilitate social intercourse with other groups
Focus on institutional & systemic racism
Status Progression?
Beyond Internalization (as Identity Commitment), lifespan perspective argues that racial ID moves by:
Stagnation
Remain at an early stage of identity formation. (Pre-encounter or immersion)
Linear stage progression
Begin in pre-encounter and progress through each stage
Recycling (Thomas Parham)
Can begin racial ID development at any stage; will reflect early parenting & socialization.
Re-initiation of an identity struggle that returns one to an earlier stage of development, e.g.,:
Developmental milestones
Becoming a parent (legal/custodial guardian)
Additional encounters
Workplace discrimination
Research with Nigrescence Model
Early research was at times, flawed methodologically
Classification of stages was arbitrary & inconsistent
Later research found ‘Nigrescence’ often (only) indirectly related to psychological well-being
Need to distinguish between personal esteem & racial esteem (i.e., self-concept as ID vs. racial awareness as group ID)
Racial identity can significantly influence outcomes, but does not necessarily cause the outcomes
Similar models developed for Latino, Asian, Native American, multiracial, feminist, gay/lesbian, religious, professional etc. identities
Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity (Robert Sellers)
Symbolic Interactionism (e.g., C. H. Cooley & G. H. Mead)
Self develops through interaction with others and is dependent upon shared symbols, structured roles, & relationships (with others in one’s social environment).
Social looking glass (i.e., others reflect Self back to us)
Race as just one of many possible identities…
Identities are arranged hierarchically
The importance of being Black will be relative to the importance of other identities (i.e., We/ALL are multidimensional)
Four dimensions of Black Identity
Race Centrality
Race Salience
Race Regard
Race Ideology
Multidimensional Racial Identity
Race Centrality
The extent to which race is core to one’s individual self-concept (including knowledge/beliefs about Self)
Of the many identities that define the Self,… How important is being Black?
High Centrality: Black is a primary self-reference
Low Centrality: Black is a minimal self-reference
Race Salience
Extent to which race is relevant to (or grabs attention of) one’s self-concept in a particular moment in time, or specific situation.
May vary based on situational, contextual, or social demands on the individual.
e.g., only African American in class, or only woman in class
More on Multidimensional Racial Identity
Race Regard
Affective & evaluative components of identity
Private Regard: How you evaluate your (own) race [+ associated affect]
Public Regard: How you believe others evaluate your race [+ assoc. affect]
Race Ideology
Beliefs about how others in group should live, think, & act
Assimilationist: Commonalities between Blacks & the rest of society
Nationalist: Uniqueness of being Black
Oppressed Minority: Commonalities between Blacks & other oppressed groups
Humanist: Commonalities among all humans
Studies with Multidimensional Racial Identity
Race Centrality
Predicts behavioral outcomes such as group affiliation, college course selection, & self-identification
Indirectly related to self-esteem (i.e., conditional effects)
If centrality is high, Self-esteem & racial esteem are also high. If centrality is low, there is no relation between Self- & racial esteem
Race Regard
Limited evidence, and research is not as meaningful because scores generally are very high (i.e., ceiling effects)
Race Ideology
Indirectly related to academic achievement & behavior
If centrality is high, GPA is lower for Nationalist & Assimilationist persons. If centrality is low, there is no relation between ideology & GPA
Research on Racial Identity - Reiterated
Racial Identity can have positive and/or negative effects on psychological well-being
Strong racial identity:
Can buffer against discriminatory experiences
Can heighten sensitivity to racial experiences
Can make one more vulnerable to race-based evaluation & rejection (or communal solidarity)
Model of Racial Socialization (Howard Stevenson)
Racial Socialization – the developmental process by which individuals learn to navigate & respond to race and racial bias, typically involves parents and other adults communicating.
Meaning of race to personal and group identity
Meaning of race to interindividual and intergroup relations
Meaning of race to position in social hierarchy
Race message is especially impactful in adolescence
Racial Socialization Scale (1995; 2002; 2020)
Spiritual & Religious Coping: messages regarding spirituality/religion as a life resource
Extended Family Care
Cultural Pride: Teaching/reinforcing African American history, culture
Racism Awareness: Messages preparing for racial hierarchy & bias