Conservation and Regeneration
Conservation and regeneration
Arguments for Species and Habitat Preservation
Arguments for preserving species and habitats are based on:
Aesthetic justifications: Species and habitats are pleasant to look at and provide beauty and inspiration.
Ecological justifications: Biodiversity leads to stability in ecosystems and provides life-support functions.
Economic justifications: Species and habitats have economic value, such as ecotourism and genetic resources.
Ethical justifications: Species have intrinsic value and current generations have a duty to protect them for future generations.
Social justifications: Natural ecosystems provide places to live for Indigenous peoples and support social cohesion.
Economic Arguments
Focus on ecotourism, genetic resources, and commercial considerations:
Rainforests can be valued by the amount of timber present, which has direct monetary value.
Species maintain genetic diversity, allowing crops to be improved in the future.
Ecological Arguments
Focus on the value of ecosystems and their functioning:
Healthy ecosystems are more likely to provide ecosystem services such as pollination and flood prevention.
Rainforests are vital for the hydrological cycle, stabilising fragile soils, regulate temperature and weather patterns, sequester and store huge amounts of carbon, cool and clean the atmosphere, and is a huge source of biodiversity.
Rainforests contain many endemic species that require specific habitats.
If species disappear, they could affect the rest of the food chain and ecosystem.
Ethical Reasons
Refer to the intrinsic or instrumental value of species:
Instrumental value: A thing is valuable because it is useful to humans.
Intrinsic value: A thing is valuable in and of itself.
Social Arguments
Focus on the importance of goods and services for human wellbeing:
Many natural ecosystems provide places to live for Indigenous peoples, and the loss of these areas would mean loss of habitats, livelihood and culture.
Many areas of great biodiversity provide an income for local people through tourism and wildlife protection, supporting social cohesion and cultural services.
Indigenous People Examples
Iban: Indigenous people of Sarawak (Malaysia), Brunei, and Western Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) who live in communal longhouses, hunting and fishing in rainforest areas, growing crops from shifting cultivation. Pulp and paper companies have cleared Iban land and planted acacia trees, and other areas have been cleared for palm oil. Appeals against the loss of their traditional lands have been denied in courts.
Penan of Borneo: Nomadic hunter-gatherers who have historically relied on the rainforests for their survival and have comprehensive knowledge of the forest. Economically developed countries see the rainforest as an opportunity to exploit natural resources and use land for new settlements. The forest is their home, providence livelihood and cultural values- loss of it means loss of homes, livelihood, food source, culture.
Conservation Strategies
In-situ Conservation
Conservation of species in their natural habitat.
Protects not only the species but also the habitat and ecosystems in which they live.
Ex-situ Conservation
Preservation of species outside their natural habitat.
Consider two examples of in situ and two examples of ex situ conservation measures.
Ex-situ Conservation: CITES
Established in 1973, it aims to prevent trade in endangered species of plants and animals.
Provides varying degrees of protection to 35,000 animal and plant species: Appendix I (threat from extinction), Appendix II (not endangered).
Membership of CITES is voluntary, and each country agrees to adopt legislation to implement CITES at the national level. All import/export/re-export of introduction of specimens or parts and derivatives of any species covered by CITS has to be authorised through a licensing system and permits must be obtained.
Limitations to CITES
It is voluntary, and countries can ‘enter reservations’ on specific species when they join.
Penalties may not necessarily match the seriousness of the crime or be sufficiently high to deter wildlife smugglers.
Unlike other international agreements such as the Montreal Protocol, CITES lacks its own financial mechanisms for implementation at the national level, and member states must contribute their own resources.
Reclassification of African Elephants
One of biggest threats: poached for their ivory tusks, habitat destruction, conflicts with locals.
Listed in Appendix I in 1990 which prohibits the trade of wild-caught specimens completely.
Reclassified into Appendix II due to increased population numbers in ZImbabwe, Botswana and Nimibia.
Resulted in a single shipment of stockpiled ivory, estimating to be 50,000 kg, to Japan in 1999.
Downlisted in South Africa in 2000 - led to an increase in ivory poaching and decline in many wild elephant populations.
Ex-situ Conservation: Zoos
Zoos have become increasingly focused on conservation and lead the way in the preservation of species threatened with extinction. In prioritizing species for conservation, zoos have to answer many questions:
How to select what to conserve?
In situ or ex situ conservation?
Is intervention helping?
How are zoo populations managed?
The five freedoms
How are breeding programmes managed?
How to Select What to Conserve?
What is the level of threat? It is better to conserve endangered animals than ones that are not endangered.
What to focus on? Different zoos have different expertise and areas of influence; they focus on their particular strengths.
Can the zoo afford to financially support the project in the long term?
Should species that are threatened for natural reasons, such as natural ecology or natural predation, be conserved?
What is the economic status of the country concerned? Zoos are more likely to support in situ conservation in developing countries than developed countries, who can help themselves.
In-situ or Ex-situ?
How big is the animal? Smaller ones are easier to keep in zoos.
Species facing habitat loss need to be conserved ex situ. For example, 90% of the Livingstone fruit bat’s habitat was lost due to cyclone damage.
Animals threatened by diseases need to be kept ex situ. For example, many amphibian species are currently under threat globally from a fungus that is wiping them out in the wild and so individuals need to be kept in quarantine in zoos.
Decisions on which projects to undertake will be influenced by staff expertise and whether the zoo vet has the knowledge to look after the species.
If local people are willing to help, in situ conservation may be appropriate. If there are local political problems, ex situ may be preferred.
Zoos often use species that are attractive to the public, such as lemurs and meerkats, to bring visitors to provide funds for conservation. Ex situ conservation is therefore often used, even if the species is not especially threatened.
Is Intervention Helping?
Research to see if intervention is helping can be carried out by studying whether numbers are improving in the wild. Local expertise can assess whether the conservation effort is effective. Example: In February 2015 a giant panda census was carried out in China, indicating that populations had grown by 268 to a total of 1864 since the last survey in 2002. The census start every 10-15 years and last four to five years.
How are Zoo Populations Managed?
When keeping animals in zoos, the welfare of the species must be considered.
Behavioural studies can indicate whether animals are under stress- may look at male and female social interactions and how the animals use their enclosures.
Consider whether the ‘five freedoms’ are being met.
‘Five freedoms’- internationally accepted standards of care that assert every living being’s right to humane treatment.
The Five Freedoms
Freedom from thirst, hunger and malnutrition.
Freedom from thermal and physical discomfort by providing an appropriate shelter and resting area.
Freedom from pain, injury and disease by prevention of rapid diagnosis and treatment.
Freedom to express normal behaviour by proving sufficient space, proper facilities and company.
Freedom from fear and distress by ensuring conditions and treatment avoid mental suffering.
How are Breeding Programmes Managed?
For effective conservation and re-establishment of species in the wild, breeding programmes can be used. To be effective, details of the species’ natural breeding behaviour must be known:
Is it acceptable to choose a mate? Do you allow mate choice?
The zoo may want to look at genes and genetic compatibility of mates so as to avoid inbreeding- animals may choose unsuitable partner.
Stud books can be used to establish genetic compatibility.
Is artificial insemination a possibility? -no need to bring in a mate.
Birth control may be needed as the zoo may not want to have animals breeding (if at full capacity).
Keeper intervention may be needed- females may reject the young.
The latest knowledge of reproductive biology and genetics is needed - such as DNA testing.
Correct enclosure design and enrichment schemes mean that a species is more likely to breed.
Strengths of Zoos
Their role in educating the public about the need for conservation.
Provide a way for people to emphasize with wildlife.
Captivity is not the best solution-> acts as a good substitute and zoos use breeding programmes to increase population size.
Ensures genetic diversity through genetic monitoring.
Provide proper diet and enough space in a controlled environment that protects them.
Offer a temporary haven while efforts are made to preserve habitats- species can be reintroduced later.
Limitations of Zoos
Some animals have problems re-adapting to the wild can can become easy prey.
Not all species breed easily in captivity - difficult to breed giant pandas in zoos.
People may become used to seeing species in zoos and assume its normal.
Habitats in zoos are very different from natural habitats.
Ethical issues around caged animals.
Best solution for endangered animals lie in the protection of their habitats.
Combining Ex-situ with In-situ Conservation: Asiatic Lion
Approx 700 Asiatic lions live in the Gir Forest of Western India - last remaining natural habitat.
They are surrounded by human activity, with a small population living in a tiny patch of forest - one disease, epidemic, forest fire could wipe them out.
India is carrying out a captive breeding programme with the lions in conjunction with zoos elsewhere (eg. UK).
Role of Charismatic Species in Zoos
Zoos used animals such as the meerkat to attract people to the zoo and to raise money through the entry fee to support their activities.
These animals are often not endangered and so are not subject to breeding and reintroduction programmes.
Zoos play an important role in education- people are more likely to shaw an active interest in conservation.
The Northern bald ibis has been classified as Critically Endangered since 1990.
Not well known to the public but will be seen when people visit the charismatic and known species in the zoo.
Public attention and funding can be achieved to support breeding programmes of the ibis.
Use of Proxy Species in Zoos: The Wild Camel
Only found in Mongolia and China - estimated population around 1000 in the wild.
The 8th most endangered large mammal on the planet- critically endangered.
Lack of specimens in zoos- can only be kept in zoos in Mongolia and nowhere else.
Cotswold Wildlife Park (UK) uses another endangered species (Bactrian camel) as a ‘proxy species’ and money from visitors is used to support conservation projects for the wild camel in Mongolia.
Proxy species- charismatic but non-threatened species managed in zoos that could function as ambassadors for threatened and visually similar sister taxa no represented ex situ.
In-situ Conservation: Flagship Species
Involves conserving species in their natural habitat. Flagship species: charismatic species selected to appeal to the public and thereby help to protect other species in the area. By focusing on these high-profile species there is a greater chance that conservation issues will catch the public attention (nationally/internationally).
Advantages: Money can be raised for the conservation of other species, preserving habitats other animals can also be preserved.
Disadvantage: Favouring of charismatic species including those not endangered at the expense of less attractive species that maybe more endangered, preserved in zoos but native habitats may be destroyed.
Habitat Conservation Strategies
Protects species by conservation of their natural environment. When protecting wild areas, use of surrounding land, and distance from urban areas, are important factors for consideration when designing the conservation area. Effective conservation of biodiversity in nature reserves and national parks depends on and understanding of the biology of target species and on the effect of size and shape of conservation areas.
Danum Valley Conservation Area, Malaysian Borneo
Large area of commercial forest is owned by the Sabah Foundation
Yayasan Sabah Forest Management Area is an extensive area of commercial hardwood forest containing protected areas of undisturbed forest, areas that are being rehabilitated with ‘enrichment planting’, and areas of commercial softwood forestry.
The area was under threat from commercial logging until the establishment of a research programme that led to local awareness of the conservation value of the area. Read the entire information on pages 309-311
Designing Protected Areas
Area: Better to have one large reserve or several smaller ones? Larger areas contain a greater number of habitats and number of species. Also impacts the population size of individual species.
Edge effects: May attract species from deeper in the reserve and exotic species from outside the reserve. Greater effect of abiotic factors.
Shape: Best shape for a reserve is a circle because it has the fewest edge effects. Shape is determined by what is available and where the habitats to be conserved are located.
Corridors: Link reserves using corridors
Buffer zones: Managed or undisturbed areas around conservation areas. Minimise disturbance from outside influences such as people, agriculture or invasion by diseases or pests. Most successful protected areas are surrounded by buffer zones.
Corridors
Benefits
Allow gene flow by immigration and/or emigration
Allow seasonal movements
Reduce collisions between cars and animals
Have fewer or no roads that can act as a barrier to some species
Disadvantages
Some species may breed outside the protected area rather than inside it, leading to a reduction in numbers - ‘outbreeding depression’
Potential invasion by exotic pests or diseases from connected reserves
Poachers can easily move from one reserve to another
May be as narrow as 30-200m- big increases in edge conditions
May become a barrier to some species when protected by fences or obstructions that were designed to deter poachers
Rules for Reserve Design
Large is preferable to small because more habitats and species are included and populations are bigger. Ideal for large mammals. There is less edge effect.
One large reserve is preferable to several small reserves because populations are bigger. There is less edge effect.
If several small reserves are unavoidable, close is preferable to isolated because animals can disperse and recolonize if a reserve loses stock through disturbance such as fire or disease.
Clumped is preferable to spread out because animals can disperse and recolonize as necessary.
Corridors are preferable to no corridors because animals can migrate.
Round is preferable to any other shape because there is less edge effect. Poaching is reduced because the centre is less accessible.
Comparing ex-situ and in-situ Conservation
Ex-situ
Strengths:
Attracts attention and therefore funding for conservation
Successfully preserves vulnerable species in zoos, botanic gardens, seed banks to preserve genetic diversity
Limitations:
Ecosystem is not treated as a holistic unit
Habitats are not preserved
Cannot return species to their natural habitat if destroyed
In-situ
Strengths:
Protected areas protect the whole ecosystem and the complex interrelationships
Long term survival of species is more likely
Allow research to take place on intact ecosystems
Ecotourism raises awareness and profits are used for biodiversity programmes
Limitations:
Require considerable funding and protection to ensure areas are not disturbed
May become ‘islands’ and lose biodiversity through their size, increased edge effects or reduced gene flow between populations
Mixed Approach to Conservation
Where both habitat and particular species are considered can be the best solution for species conservation. Usually invokes flagship species and/or keystone species to justify the need to conserve intact habitats and landscapes.
Giant Pandas
Act as flagship species - listed in Appendix I by CITES in 1984
Breeding programmes in zoos- 53 zoos and nature reserves have bred pandas
Raising pandas in captivity raises 3 main difficulties: getting the female to come into heat and become reproductively receptive, conducting artificial insemination, and raising the cubs.
In situ conservation- establishment of protected areas
Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding - involved in in situ and ex situ conservation with emphasis on wildlife research, captive breeding, conservation education and educational tourism
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
A UN treaty addressing both species-based and habitat-based conservation.
Objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.
Aims to identify protected marine areas outside of national jurisdictions.
Includes Nagoya Protocol- promotes the fair and equitable sharing of genetic resources.
Rewilding
Aims to restore ecosystems and reverse declines in biodiversity by returning an area to its natural processes and wildlife.
Reintroduces animals to natural environments
Keystone species are reintroduced for functioning of the ecosystem
Establishment of corridors to allow movement of animals between fragmented areas-> gives larger animals the area they need to feed and breed
Agriculture and other resource harvesting no longer allowed and natural ecosystems can recover through ecological management
The Hinewai Restoration Project
An ecological restoration project on Banks Peninsula, New Zealand
Human settlers cleared parts of the reserve
The area covers 1500 hectares and is being managed to ensure the natural regeneration of native vegetation and wildlife
Management involves minimal intervention and allows succession to occur
Alien species are removed allowing endemic flora and fauna to be re-established
Conservation and Regeneration Measures
Can be used to reverse the decline in biodiversity to ensure a safe operating space for humanity within the biodiversity planetary boundaries and can be taken at individual, collective, national and international levels.
Environmental Perspectives and Value Systems
The success of conservation and regeneration measures depends on incorporating a diversity of approaches including:
Community support
Adequate funding
Education and awareness
Appropriate legislation
Scientific research
Environmental Perspectives and Value Systems Impact the Choice of Conservation Strategies
Environmental perspectives and value systems can impact the choice of conservation strategies selected by a society:
More ecocentric perspectives may result in conservation for the intrinsic value of biodiversity and focus on low intervention in situ strategies
More anthropocentric or technocentric perspectives may be driven by economic and societal value of biodiversity and embrace more scientific interventions involving zoos, gene banks and ecotourism
Issues of environmental justice must be considered when choosing the most appropriate conservation strategy.