Notes on Diglossia and Multilingualism

  • Introduction to Diglossia

    • Definition: Diglossia refers to the situation where two dialects or languages are used by a single language community.

    • High Variety (HV): A highly codified dialect used in formal settings (literature, education etc.) but not for everyday conversation.

  • Low Variety (LV): The vernacular language used in daily conversations.

Historical Context

  • Origin of the Term: Introduced by Charles Ferguson in 1959 in his article “Diglossia” published in Word (15, pp. 325-40).

  • Ferguson's Background: Led the development of the TOEFL test and worked on language surveys in Ethiopia.

Key Sociolinguistic Contexts

  • The Arab World: HV - Classical Arabic; LV - Colloquial Dialects.

  • Greece: HV - Katharevusa; LV - Dimotiki (demotic), now the standard since 1976.

  • Switzerland: HV - Standard German; LV - Swiss German.

  • Haiti: HV - Standard French; LV - French Creole.

  • Jamaica: HV - Jamaican English; LV - Jamaican Creole.

  • Examples by Ferguson: Standard German/Swiss German, Standard Arabic/Vernacular Arabics, Standard French/French Creole in Haiti, Katharevousa/Dimotiki in Greece.

Functional Aspects of Diglossia

  • Diglossic Distribution: HV is used in formal/public occasions, while LV is the everyday language.

  • Code-switching: Some overlap exists; speakers may switch between HV and LV depending on context.

  • Ferguson’s Definition:

    • Styles of language depend on context rather than social class.

    • No group uses HV as the mother tongue; it is learned as a second language for formal situations.

Perspectives on Diglossia

  • J. Fishman: Expanded the definition to include unrelated languages in HV and LV roles (e.g., French as HV and Alsatian as LV in Alsace, Spanish and Guarani in Paraguay).

  • Heinz Kloss: Distinguished between exoglossia (HV) and endoglossia (LV).

  • Gumperz, J.: Proposed that any society with multiple varieties of language can be labeled as diglossic.

Case Studies

  • Belgium: Officially bilingual (French and Dutch) with regions possessing unique language dynamics.

    • 3 language areas: Dutch, French, and German-speaking.

    • Historical context: French was the sole official language until 1898.

  • Israel: Primary languages are Modern Hebrew and Arabic, English serves as a secondary linguistic vehicle.

    • Language policy from 1922 mandated multilingual publication.

  • Bolivia: The constitution recognizes all indigenous languages while defining official languages; Spanish and Quechua dominate.

  • German-Mennonites: Standard German used formally while Plautdietsch serves as the everyday language.

Summary

  • The notion of diglossia illustrates the complex language dynamics within communities where HV and LV varieties function in complementary ways, highlighting cultural, social, and historical factors informing language use.

  • Recognition of these dual-language situations deepens understanding of language prestige and societal roles across different communities.