egypt from 1900s
in december 1914, britain formally made egypt a protectorate, though it was more of a veiled one.
egypt was not considered a colony but rather under military occupation, and strictly speaking, it still belonged to the sultan.
issues faced - the Capitulations:
all foreigners in egypt were subject to regulations that the sultan granted to protect europeans from muslim laws against christians.
foreigners had the privilege to be tried in their own country's law courts.
any new egyptian law affecting europeans had to be approved by the governments of all countries represented in egypt, leading to a slow process.
the caisse de la dette:
egypt's finances were controlled by a consortium involving austria-hungary, france, germany, russia, italy, and britain.
approximately half of the country's revenue went to paying european bond holders.
members of the caisse (financial institution) had the power to prevent the british consul-general from spending egypt's money on matters they disapproved of.
cromer's plan to use egyptian funds for the re-conquest of sudan was thwarted by france and russia.
the mixed courts:
a system was established to handle cases involving both egyptians and europeans.
the tribunal was presided over by both european and egyptian judges, though not always supportive of britain
the french:
france had interests in egypt and the broader region.
the fashoda incident in 1898 altered the dynamics.
in 1904, a diplomatic agreement known as the entente cordiale was signed, where france accepted britain's special rights in egypt, and in return, britain recognised the french takeover of morocco.
what else was happening in egypt?
evelyn baring, also known as lord cromer, served as the british consul-general from 1883 to 1907 and acted as an advisor to the khedive.
egypt had a partially elected parliament consisting of an advisory council of laws and a general assembly. all egyptian ministers had the "support" of a british advisor, and resistance to british advice could lead to dismissal.
in 1885, there were 100 brits working in the egyptian government, a number that increased to over 1000 by 1905.
financial affairs:
baring's primary task was to regulate egyptian financial affairs.
khedive isma'il had accumulated a £70 million debt, mainly to european bondholders.
baring implemented cutbacks to egypt's military and bureaucracy to address the financial challenges.
baring aimed to revitalize the economy by improving communications and investing in irrigation schemes.
he enhanced conditions for egyptian laborers, introduced better sanitation and health services in towns.
within 10 years, exports of cotton and sugar tripled, and the population increased from 7 to 10 million.
baring reformed the egyptian army, placing 6000 british troops within it to safeguard british interests, with the army under the control of kitchener.
changes were made to law courts, police, and education, with caution about extending education to all due to concerns in egypt.
initially, only a few years of elementary schooling were provided.
it was not until 1909 that a new university was founded to supplement the university of cairo, which initially focused on religious education, offering modern subjects and professional training.
aswan dam:
built under the direction of sir john aird.
a wall, 18m high and ¼ mile long, was constructed to hold back the waters of the nile.
the project took 6 years to complete and cost £2 million.
it was opened in 1902, enabling the irrigation of 1.2 million acres of former desert land.
tourism:
egypt's tourism industry expanded massively.
thomas cook & son became egypt's largest employer.
by 1900, it became popular for wealthy britons to spend their winters in egypt.
few ventured into the countryside, and europeans were discouraged from mixing with local people.