Operant Conditioning

Definition (#f7aeae)

Important (#edcae9)

Extra (#fffe9d)

Learning Outcomes:

  1. E.L Thorndike: What the occasion demanded.

  2. B.F Skinner: Types of operant learning.

  3. Kinds of reinforcers.

  4. Variables affecting Operant learning.

  5. Mechanics of Operant Conditioning.

Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1947):

  • Author of the law of effect (1911).

  • Behaviors with favourable consequences will occur more frequently.

  • Behaviors with unfavourable consequences will happen less frequently.

  • Created puzzle boxes for research on cats.

Thorndike effect: Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation.

Instrumental responses:

  • Actions which function as tools to work some change in the environment; also called operant responses.

  • Ex: flipping a switch to light a room; rats pushing a lever to

         receive food.

Operant conditioning:

  • Learning process by which the consequence of an operant response affects the likelihood that the response will occur in the future.

Research on cats:

  • The cat is placed in the box with the food reward outside.

  • The box has a lever in front of the box, which is attached to a pulley system.

  • The hungry cat eventually learns that pressing on the lever will result in getting out of the box and being able to get the food.

  • Satisfying state of affairs: escape.

  • Annoying state of affairs: stuck inside.

The trial and error process through which the animals learned the way to trip the latch was what Thorndike called his law of effect.

B.F Skinner (1904-1990):

  • Believed that internal factors like thoughts, emotions and beliefs could not be used to explain behavior. Instead said that behaviors were actively chosen by the organism.

  • Looked at ‘operants’ or active behaviors that are used on the environment to generate consequences.

  • Developed the fundamental principles and techniques of operant conditioning and devised ways to apply them in the real world.

  • Designed the Skinner Box or operant chamber.

Comparison:

  • Thorndike’s Law of Effect:

    • Positive outcomes strengthen behavior.

    • Negative outcomes weaken behavior.

  • The Skinner Box:

    • Controlled conditions to study operant conditioning.

    • Operant (Lever pressed by rat) → Consequences (food).

  • Shaping:

    • Rewarding approximations of desired behaviors.

Principles of Reinforcement:

  1. Reinforcement increases probability of behavior.

    • Positive reinforcement:

      • Presentation (Adding) of something pleasant.

    • Negative Reinforcement:

      • Removal of something unpleasant.

      • Avoidance learning, learned helplessness.

    • Primary Reinforcer:

      • Innately satisfying (unconditionally)

    • Secondary Reinforcer:

      • Acquires positive value through experience (conditional)

    • Avoidance learning: Escaping punishment.

    • Learned helplessness: Failed in negative reinforcement.

  2. Punishment:

    Punishment decreases the likelihood of behavior.

    • Positive Punishment:

      • Presentation (adding) of something unpleasant.

    • Negative Punishment:

      • Removal of something pleasant.

  1. Generalizations:

    • Performance reinforcement behavior in different situations.

  2. Discrimination:

    • Responding to signal that behavior will (or will not) be reinforced.

  3. Extinction:

    • Behavior no longer reinforced decreased in frequency.

Variables Affecting Operant Learning:

  1. Contingency

  2. Contiguity

  3. Reinforcer characteristics (Big? Small?)

  4. Behavior characteristics (easy? hard?)

  5. Motivating operating (hungry, not hungry?)

Schedules of Reinforcement:

  1. Continuous Reinforcement:

    • Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.

  2. Partial Reinforcement:

    • Reinforcer follows behavior only a portion of the time.

  3. Partial Reinforcement Schedules:

    • Ratio (no. of behaviors) vs Internal (time elapsed)

    • Fixed (predictable) vs Variable (Unpredictable)

  4. Fixed Ratio:

    • Based on set number of behaviors.

    • Ex: Get a sticker after coloring each session, participation marks.

  5. Variable Ratio:

    • Based on average (unpredictable) number of behaviors.

    • Ex: Children will be given a sticker after coloring a no. of picture, gambling.

  6. Fixed Interval:

    • Rewarding behavior after fixing amount of time passes.

    • Ex: Children will be given sticker at the end of each day.

  7. Variable Interval:

    • Rewarding after variable amount of time passes.

    • Ex: Children will be given sticker at the end of some days.

Operant Conditioning: Timing

  1. Immediate vs Delayed Reinforcement:

    • Waiting for delayed, but more highly valued reinforcer.

  2. Immediate vs Delayed Punishment:

    • Immediate more effective, but delayed can have effect.

    • Ex: not completing assignments on time.

  3. Immediate Reinforcement vs delayed Punishment:

    • Immediate consequences usually win.

    • Ex: taking a new job; immediate punishment, delayed reinforcement.

    • Binging: immediate reinforcement, delayed punishment.

Applied Behavior Analysis:

  • Called behavior modification.

  • Use of operant conditioning principles to change behavior.

  • Identifies reinforcers that may be maintaining unwanted behaviors and enhance rewards for appropriate behavior.

  • All human behavior understood as being influenced by rewards and punishments (consequences of action).