AP Psych Unit 9

Motivation, Emotion, and Personality

Motivation- the process of starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities

Instinct- Preprogrammed tendencies that are essential to a species's survival.

drive-reduction theory- a theory of motivation stating that motivation arises from imbalances in homeostasis

arousal theory- theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation

Yerkes-Dodson Law- the psychological principle stating that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than either low or high arousal

Homeostasis- constancy or equilibrium of the internal conditions of the body

Incentive- external stimuli or rewards that motivate behavior although they do not relate directly to biological needs

Sensation Seeking Theory- This theory suggests that our motivation can come from a desire for new or exciting experiences

Motivational Conflicts Theory- situations where individuals face competing desires or goals, leading to the need to choose between options with both positive and negative aspects

Extrinsic Motivation-  motivation that stems from external factors or rewards, rather than internal satisfaction or enjoyment. 

Intrinsic Motivation- engaging in an activity for its inherent satisfaction or enjoyment, rather than for external rewards or pressures. 

Approach-Approach Conflict- An approach-approach conflict refers to a situation where an individual has to make a choice between two desirable outcomes or stimuli.

Approach-Avoidance Conflict-  a psychological conflict that arises when a goal is perceived as both desirable and undesirable

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict- occurs when an individual is faced with two undesirable or unpleasant choices, forcing them to choose the "lesser of two evils". 

Hunger Continued, Sexual Orientation, and Sexual Motivation

Glucose- the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

Leptin- Leptin is a hormone produced by fat cells that signals the hypothalamus in the brain about our body fat level. When working properly, leptin helps maintain our body weight within a healthy range.

PYY- PYY (Peptide YY) is a hormone that helps regulate appetite. It's released by cells in the intestines and colon after eating, signaling to your brain that you're full.

Ghrelin- Ghrelin is a hormone produced by the stomach that stimulates hunger. It's often termed the 'hunger hormone' because it increases food intake and promotes fat storage.

Orexin- Orexin, also known as hypocretin, is a neurotransmitter that regulates arousal, wakefulness, and appetite.

Insulin- insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates the amount of glucose in the blood. It allows cells to take in sugar for energy or storage, depending on what's needed.

set point- the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

basal metabolic rate- the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.

Hypothalamus- The hypothalamus is a small region of the brain that serves as the main control center for autonomic functions. It plays a crucial role in many important functions, including releasing hormones and regulating body temperature.

lateral hypothalamus- The lateral hypothalamus is part of the hypothalamus involved in triggering eating and drinking.

ventromedial nucleus of hypothalamus (VMH)- The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is a region of the hypothalamus in the brain that plays a crucial role in the regulation of hunger, eating behavior, and energy homeostasis. It is considered a key component in the neural circuitry that controls appetite and food intake.

anorexia nervosa- An eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight, leading to self-starvation and excessive weight loss.

bulimia nervosa- This is another type of eating disorder characterized by episodes of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting (purging), fasting, or over-exercising.

binge eating- A severe eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of consuming large quantities of food quickly and uncontrollably, without the regular use of compensatory measures to counter the binge eating.

Theories of Emotion, Embodied Emotion, and Expressed Emotion.

Emotion- a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.

James-Lange theory- the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.

Cannon-Bard theory- the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers

(1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.

two-factor theory- the Schachter- Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.

Schacter & Singer- Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer were American social psychologists who proposed the two-factor theory of emotion, which posits that emotions are formed through the interaction of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation.

Polygraph- a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes) accompanying emotion.

Catharsis- Catharsis refers to an emotional release experienced by the audience when they witness intense emotions and conflicts being resolved in a work of literature. It provides relief and purification through empathy with fictional characters.

feel-good do-good phenomenon- The tendency of people to be helpful when they are in a good mood.

facial feedback hypothesis- the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.

Positive Psychology- Positive psychology focuses on factors that contribute to individual and societal thriving. It emphasizes positive emotions, resilience, and psychological health, shifting away from traditional psychology's focus on pathology and dysfunction to a more balanced perspective.

Well-being- Feelings of well-being refer to experiencing positive emotions such as happiness, contentment, satisfaction with life, and overall psychological wellness.

Subjective Well-being- Subjective well-being refers to an individual's personal evaluation and experience of their own life satisfaction, happiness, and positive emotions. It encompasses the cognitive and affective components that contribute to an individual's overall sense of well-being and quality of life.

Post-Traumatic Growth- Post traumatic growth refers to positive psychological change experienced as a result of adversity and other challenges in order to rise to a higher level of functioning.

Experienced Emotion and Stress and Health

Stress- the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)- Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

Coronary heart disease- the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries.

Type A- Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people.

Type B- Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people.

Eustress- "eustress" refers to a positive form of stress that can be beneficial for health, motivation, performance, and emotional well-being, often resulting from challenging but attainable and enjoyable tasks.

Distress- Psychological distress refers to emotional or mental suffering, typically caused by life stressors or internal conflicts. It can manifest as anxiety, depression, or other negative emotions.

Hypertension- Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a chronic medical condition characterized by an abnormally elevated blood pressure in the arteries. It is a significant risk factor for various cardiovascular diseases and can lead to serious health complications if left 

untreated.

Health Psychology-explores how psychological, behavioral, and social factors influence health, illness, and healthcare, encompassing topics like stress, coping mechanisms, and the mind-body connection. 

Problem Focused Coping- Problem-focused coping refers to a strategy used to deal with stressors by taking direct action to solve the problem causing the stress. It involves identifying and addressing the root cause of the problem.

Emotion Focused Coping- Emotion-focused coping refers to a strategy aimed at managing the emotional distress associated with a stressful situation rather than addressing the problem itself.

Tend and Befriend Theory- under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend).

Adverse Childhood Experiences- Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) refer to a range of negative and traumatic experiences that occur during childhood, such as abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction.

intro to the Psychoanalytic Perspective

Personality- an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

free association- in psycho- analysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

Psychoanalysis- Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.

psychodynamic approach- modern-day approaches that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences.

Sigmund Freud- An Austrian neurologist who founded psychoanalysis. He proposed theories about the role of the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and sexuality in influencing human behavior and development.

Unconscious- according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes,

feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which

we are unaware.

Id- a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic

sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

Ego- the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

Superego- the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides

standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

psychosexual stages- the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.

oral stage- The oral psychosexual stage is the first stage of psychosexual development according to Freud, which occurs from birth to around one year old. During this stage, pleasure is focused on the mouth and primary conflict arises from weaning.

anal stage- The anal stage is Freud's second psychosexual developmental phase (from 18 months to three years) where pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control can lead to fixation on orderliness or messiness

phallic stage- The phallic stage is the third of Freud's psychosexual stages (from 3 to 6 years), during which pleasure focuses on the genitals. This is also when children become aware of their gender identity.

latency stage- The latency stage is the fourth stage of Freud's psychosexual development theory, occurring from around age six to puberty. During this period, sexual urges are repressed and children focus on developing social and intellectual skills.

genital stage- The final stage of Freud's psychosexual development where individuals develop a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex.

Oedipus complex- The Oedipus complex concept, proposed by Sigmund Freud, is a psychoanalytic theory that suggests children experience unconscious sexual desires for the opposite-sex parent and rivalry with the same-sex parent. It occurs during the phallic stage of psychosexual development.

Electra complex- This is a similar concept proposed by Carl Jung, which suggests that girls experience unconscious sexual desires for their fathers and rivalry with their mothers.

Freudian slip- Slips-of-the-tongue, also known as Freudian slips or parapraxes, are unintentional errors in speech or memory that reveal unconscious thoughts or desires. They occur when the unconscious mind influences our conscious actions and words.

Identification- the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos.

Fixation- according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved.

defense mechanisms- in psycho- analytic theory, the ego’s protective  methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

Repression- in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Compensation- Compensation is a psychological strategy where individuals attempt to make up for perceived inadequacies or failures in one area by emphasizing or excelling in another. 

Regression- A defense mechanism leading to the temporary or long-term reversion of the ego to an earlier stage of development rather than handling unacceptable impulses in a more adaptive way.

Reaction formation- Reaction formation is a defense mechanism where an individual acts in a manner opposite to their actual feelings to keep their true feelings hidden.

Projection- Projection is a psychological defense mechanism where individuals attribute characteristics they find unacceptable in themselves to another person.

Rationalization- Rationalize refers to the psychological process of justifying or explaining one's actions, beliefs, or feelings in a way that makes them seem logical and acceptable. It involves creating plausible reasons to reduce cognitive dissonance.

Displacement- Displacement is a defense mechanism where negative feelings are transferred from the original source to a less threatening person or object.

Sublimation- This is another defense mechanism where socially unacceptable impulses are transformed into socially acceptable actions or behavior.

Denial- This is a defense mechanism in which confrontation with a personal problem or with reality is avoided by denying the existence of the problem or reality.

Neo-Freudian- Neo-Freudian psychologists are those who were influenced by Sigmund Freud but developed their own competing theories. They generally agree with Freud's emphasis on unconscious processes but place more focus on social interactions and less on sexual drive.

Erik Erikson- Erik Erikson was a German-American developmental psychologist known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. He emphasized the social nature of our development rather than focusing solely on the psychosexual aspects

Alfred Adler- Alfred Adler was an Austrian medical doctor and psychotherapist, known for founding the school of individual psychology. He emphasized the importance of feelings of inferiority in the individual's psyche and proposed that these feelings drive people to strive for superiority.

inferiority complex- An inferiority complex is an intense feeling of inadequacy, often resulting in excessive over-compensation, based on the belief that one is less than others in some way.

Karen Horney- Karen Horney was a German psychoanalyst who postulated that social and cultural conditions, particularly childhood experiences, have a powerful effect on later personality. She is also known for her theories on neurosis and feminine psychology.

Carl Jung- Carl Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who founded analytical psychology. He proposed concepts like collective unconscious, archetypes, and introverted/extroverted personality types.

collective unconscious- Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history.

projective test- a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous stimuli

designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)- a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

Rorschach inkblot test- the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

Carl Rogers- An influential American psychologist who developed client-centered therapy (also known as Rogerian therapy) which emphasizes unconditional positive regard and self-acceptance.

Abraham Maslow- Abraham Maslow was an American psychologist best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs—a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, culminating in self-actualization.

hierarchy of needs- A motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. From bottom to top, the levels are physiological needs, safety needs, love and belongingness needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization.

Self-actualization- according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential.

unconditional positive regard- according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward

another person.

conditions of worth- Conditions of Worth are the conditions we think we must meet in order for other people to accept us as worthy of their love or positive regard.

self concept- all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

Trait Perspective, Social Cognitive Perspective

Trait- a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

Hans Eyesenck- He was a German-British psychologist who proposed a model of personality based on three dimensions - extraversion/introversion, neuroticism/stability, and psychoticism/superego function.

personality inventory- a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)- The MBTI is a self-report questionnaire designed to identify a person's personality type, strengths, and preferences. It categorizes individuals into 16 different personality types.

Barnum effect- The Barnum effect describes the tendency to believe that vague, general statements about personality are actually tailored to oneself. 

social-cognitive perspective- views behavior as influenced by the interactions between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context; psychologists emphasize our sense of personal control

Albert Bandura- we learn many of our behaviors either through conditioning or observation or modeling; emphasize the importance of cognitive processes

reciprocal determinism- the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

personal control- the extent to which people perceive control over their environment rather than feeling helpless

self efficacy- one’s sense of competence and effectiveness.

external locus of control- the perception that chance or outside force beyond your personal control determine your fate

internal locus of control- the perception that you control your own fate

learned helplessness- Learned helplessness is a psychological condition where an individual feels powerless to change their situation due to repeated failures or negative outcomes in the past.

positive psychology- the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive.

spotlight effect- overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance,

and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us).

Self-esteem- one’s feelings of high or low self-worth.

self-serving bias- a readiness to perceive oneself favorably.