U6 Unit Test

Civil War and Reconstruction Terms

1. Fort Sumter

   • Definition: A U.S. military garrison in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina.

   • Context: The first shots of the Civil War were fired here on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked the Union garrison. This marked the beginning of the Civil War.

2. Anaconda Plan

   • Definition: A strategic plan devised by Union General Winfield Scott during the early stages of the Civil War.

   • Context: The plan aimed to blockade Southern ports and control the Mississippi River to "squeeze" the Confederacy economically and militarily, ultimately leading to its collapse.

3. Border States

   • Definition: Slave states that did not secede from the Union during the Civil War.

   • Context: These states—Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, and West Virginia—were crucial to the Union's strategic position, as they bordered the Confederacy and were strategically important for resources, railroads, and manpower.

4. George McClellan

   • Definition: A Union general early in the Civil War, later replaced by Ulysses S. Grant.

   • Context: McClellan was known for his caution and hesitancy in battle, which led to missed opportunities, though he organized and trained the Army of the Potomac. He ran for president in 1864 as a peace candidate, advocating for an end to the war.

5. Robert E. Lee

   • Definition: The leading Confederate general during the Civil War.

   • Context: Lee is celebrated for his military strategy and leadership, but his eventual surrender to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House in 1865 marked the end of the Confederacy.

6. Copperheads

   • Definition: Northern Democrats who opposed the Civil War and wanted to negotiate peace with the Confederacy.

   • Context: They were viewed as traitors by many Unionists and played a role in undermining the Union war effort, particularly in the Midwest.

7. Ironclads

   • Definition: Warships with iron or steel armor, first used extensively in the Civil War.

   • Context: The famous clash between the Union's Monitor and the Confederacy’s Merrimack (also called the Virginia) in 1862 marked the first meeting in combat of ironclad warships, changing naval warfare.

8. Emancipation Proclamation

   • Definition: A presidential decree issued by Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, that declared all slaves in Confederate-held territory to be free.

   • Context: While it did not immediately free all slaves, it was a turning point in the Civil War, shifting the Union’s war aim to include the abolition of slavery and encouraging African Americans to join the Union army.

9. Battle of Antietam

   • Definition: A major battle in Maryland on September 17, 1862, known as the bloodiest single day in American military history.

   • Context: The battle ended in a tactical draw but gave Abraham Lincoln the victory he needed to announce the Emancipation Proclamation.

10. Battle of Gettysburg

• Definition: A decisive battle fought from July 1–3, 1863, in Pennsylvania.

• Context: The Union victory here marked the turning point in the Civil War, as the Confederacy was forced to retreat and never regained the strategic initiative.

11. Battle of Vicksburg

• Definition: A campaign and siege from May 18 to July 4, 1863, that gave the Union control of the Mississippi River.

• Context: The fall of Vicksburg, along with the victory at Gettysburg, was a major turning point in the Civil War, splitting the Confederacy in two.

12. Draft Riots

• Definition: Violent protests in New York City in July 1863 against the Union draft, especially by working-class whites.

• Context: The riots were fueled by resentment toward the draft laws, racial tensions, and economic inequality, and resulted in widespread destruction and loss of life.

13. Hard War

• Definition: A strategy used during the Civil War, particularly by Union generals like William Tecumseh Sherman, that involved targeting not only military forces but also civilian infrastructure to destroy the enemy’s will to fight.

• Context: This strategy was most notably applied during Sherman’s March through Georgia.

14. Sherman’s March

• Definition: A destructive military campaign led by General William Tecumseh Sherman from November 1864 to March 1865 through Georgia and the Carolinas.

• Context: Sherman’s forces employed "total war" tactics, devastating the Southern economy and morale, hastening the end of the war.

15. Appomattox Court House

• Definition: The site in Virginia where Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant on April 9, 1865, effectively ending the Civil War.

• Context: Lee’s surrender was the final blow to the Confederate war effort.

Reconstruction and Post-Civil War Terms

16. Reconstruction

• Definition: The period (1865–1877) following the Civil War when the United States attempted to reintegrate Southern states into the Union and address the issues of slavery and race relations.

• Context: Reconstruction included both presidential and congressional plans, but it ended with the compromise of 1877, leading to the withdrawal of federal troops from the South.

17. Lincoln’s 10 Percent Plan

• Definition: A proposal by President Abraham Lincoln for Reconstruction that required 10% of voters in Southern states to swear an oath of loyalty to the Union before they could rejoin.

• Context: This lenient plan was rejected by Congress, who believed it was too soft on the South.

18. 13th Amendment

• Definition: The constitutional amendment ratified in December 1865 that abolished slavery in the United States.

• Context: The amendment formally ended the legal institution of slavery, freeing millions of African Americans.

19. John Wilkes Booth

• Definition: The actor who assassinated President Abraham Lincoln on April 14, 1865.

• Context: Booth, a Confederate sympathizer, shot Lincoln at Ford’s Theatre, which was a tragic and pivotal moment in U.S. history.

20. Andrew Johnson

• Definition: The 17th President of the United States, who succeeded Abraham Lincoln after his assassination.

• Context: Johnson's lenient approach to Reconstruction and his vetoes of civil rights legislation led to a conflict with Congress and his impeachment in 1868 (he was acquitted).

21. Black Codes

• Definition: Laws passed by Southern states after the Civil War that severely restricted the freedoms of African Americans.

• Context: These laws were designed to maintain white supremacy and control over freed African Americans, undermining the gains of emancipation.

22. Civil Rights Act of 1866

• Definition: A law that granted citizenship and equal rights to all persons born in the U.S., regardless of race.

• Context: It was passed over President Johnson’s veto, marking a significant step toward racial equality during Reconstruction.

23. 14th Amendment

• Definition: The amendment ratified in 1868 that granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and guaranteed equal protection under the law.

• Context: It was a major victory for civil rights, aiming to protect former slaves from discriminatory state laws.

24. Reconstruction Act of 1867

• Definition: A law that divided the South into five military districts and required states to ratify the 14th Amendment and guarantee voting rights for African American men before rejoining the Union.

• Context: This Act marked a more radical phase of Reconstruction, ensuring federal oversight in the South.

25. Hiram Revels

• Definition: The first African American to serve in the U.S. Senate.

• Context: Revels was elected to the Senate from Mississippi in 1870 during Reconstruction, symbolizing the political gains of African Americans during this period.

26. Ulysses S. Grant

• Definition: The 18th President of the U.S. and the Union general who led the Northern forces to victory in the Civil War.

• Context: Grant’s presidency focused on Reconstruction and efforts to enforce civil rights but was marred by corruption scandals.

27. Freedmen’s Bureau

• Definition: A government agency established in 1865 to help former slaves transition to freedom by providing food, shelter, education, and legal assistance.

• Context: While it helped many African Americans, the Bureau faced opposition from white Southerners and was eventually disbanded.

28. Oliver O. Howard

• Definition: A Union general who headed the Freedmen’s Bureau.

• Context: Howard was instrumental in helping African Americans adjust to life after slavery, though the Bureau's efforts were limited by political and social challenges.

29. 15th Amendment

• Definition: Ratified in 1870, this amendment guaranteed that the right to vote could not be denied on the basis of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

• Context: It marked a significant achievement for African American rights but was undermined by voter suppression methods in the South.

30. NWSA (National Woman Suffrage Association)

• Definition: A group formed in 1869 by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton to fight for women's suffrage.

• Context: The NWSA played a crucial role in the women’s rights movement and in advocating for the 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote.

31. New Departure

• Definition: A strategy adopted by suffragists in the late 1860s that argued women were already citizens and thus had the right to vote under the 14th Amendment.

• Context: This tactic was part of the broader effort to gain women’s suffrage, even before the 19th Amendment was passed.

32. KKK (Ku Klux Klan)

• Definition: A white supremacist terrorist organization formed in 1865 in the South to oppose Reconstruction and intimidate African Americans and their allies.

• Context: The Klan used violence and intimidation to suppress African American voting and civil rights, particularly in the South.

33. Enforcement Acts

• Definition: Laws passed in the early 1870s to protect African Americans from Klan violence and to enforce the 15th Amendment.

• Context: These acts were an attempt by the federal government to curb racial violence and ensure African American political participation.

34. Greenbacks

• Definition: Paper currency issued by the U.S. government during and after the Civil War.

• Context: The greenbacks were issued as legal tender to finance the Union war effort and faced inflationary pressures during the war.

35. Sharecropping

• Definition: A system where landowners provided land and supplies to poor farmers (many of them formerly enslaved people) in exchange for a share of the crops produced.

• Context: Sharecropping became a widespread system in the South after the Civil War, often trapping African Americans in cycles of debt and poverty.

36. Morrill Land Grant

• Definition: A law passed in 1862 that provided federal land to states to build agricultural and mechanical colleges.

• Context: The Land Grant Act was instrumental in expanding higher education, especially in the West and for the working class.

37. Redeemers

• Definition: Southern Democrats who aimed to "redeem" the South from Reconstruction and restore white supremacy.

• Context: Redeemers were successful in regaining control of Southern state governments in the 1870s, leading to the end of Reconstruction.

38. Depression of 1873

• Definition: A severe economic downturn that lasted for several years, beginning with a banking panic.

• Context: The depression hurt the Republican Party’s credibility and diverted attention from Reconstruction policies.

39. Compromise of 1877

• Definition: An agreement that resolved the disputed 1876 presidential election.

• Context: In exchange for Rutherford B. Hayes becoming president, federal troops were withdrawn from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction.

Native American and Westward Expansion Terms

40. Homestead Act

• Definition: A law passed in 1862 that provided 160 acres of public land to settlers who agreed to improve it.

• Context: The act encouraged westward expansion, though many settlers faced harsh conditions and Native American resistance.

41. Dakota War

• Definition: A conflict in 1862 between the Dakota Sioux and the U.S. government in Minnesota.

• Context: The war arose from tensions over land, food shortages, and broken treaties, leading to brutal violence and the execution of 38 Dakota warriors.

42. Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)

• Definition: A treaty between the U.S. government and several Native American tribes, which established territorial boundaries for the tribes.

• Context: The treaty aimed to ease tensions with Native Americans but was undermined by further U.S. expansion.

43. Sand Creek Massacre

• Definition: A 1864 attack by Colorado militia on a peaceful Cheyenne camp, resulting in the deaths of 150-200 Native Americans.

• Context: The massacre deepened tensions between Native Americans and the U.S. government during the Indian Wars.

44. Chief Joseph

• Definition: A leader of the Nez Perce tribe who led a remarkable retreat to Canada in 1877 to avoid forced relocation.

• Context: Chief Joseph is famous for his leadership and his surrender speech, "I will fight no more forever."

45. Transcontinental Railroad

• Definition: A railroad line completed in 1869 that connected the eastern U.S. to the West Coast.

• Context: The railroad facilitated westward expansion and the settlement of the American frontier, though it also disrupted Native American lands.

46. Pacific Railroad Act

• Definition: Legislation passed in 1862 that authorized the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad.

• Context: This act provided federal support and land grants for the building of the railroad, which was critical to the economic development of the West.

47. Dawes Act

• Definition: A law passed in 1887 that aimed to assimilate Native Americans by dividing tribal lands into individual plots.

• Context: The act was disastrous for Native Americans, leading to a significant loss of their land and further erosion of their cultures.

48. Ghost Dance

• Definition: A religious movement among Native American tribes in the late 19th century, promising the restoration of their lands and way of life.

• Context: The movement was met with violence, notably the Wounded Knee Massacre.

49. Wounded Knee

• Definition: A massacre of Lakota Sioux by the U.S. Army in 1890 at Wounded Knee Creek, South Dakota.

• Context: The massacre marked the end of the Indian resistance to U.S. expansion.

50. William “Buffalo Bill” Cody

• Definition: A famous showman and former scout who became a symbol of the Wild West.

• Context: Cody’s Wild West show glorified the American frontier, often romanticizing its conflicts and myths.

51. Annie Oakley

• Definition: A sharpshooter who became famous for her performances in Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show.

• Context: Oakley was an icon of the American frontier, demonstrating women's strength and skill in a male-dominated world.

52. Frontier (Turner) Thesis

• Definition: A theory by historian Frederick Jackson Turner in 1893 that the American frontier was key to shaping the nation’s democracy and identity.

• Context: Turner argued that the closing of the frontier marked the end of a distinctive phase in American history and the beginning of new challenges for the nation.

1. What were the causes of the Civil War?

The causes of the Civil War were deeply rooted in political, economic, and social divisions, primarily over slavery and its expansion into new territories. Key factors included:

• Slavery: The moral, economic, and political debates surrounding slavery, particularly its expansion into newly acquired western territories, were central. The South's economy was heavily dependent on slavery, while many in the North were increasingly opposed to it.

• States’ Rights: Southern states believed in the sovereignty of states over federal authority, particularly regarding the right to maintain slavery, leading to the doctrine of secession.

• Economic Differences: The industrialized North and the agricultural South had divergent economic interests, with the South advocating for free trade and the North supporting tariffs to protect its industries.

• Cultural Divides: The North and South had developed distinct cultures, with the North moving toward industrialization and urbanization and the South maintaining a more agrarian, slave-based economy.

• The Election of Abraham Lincoln (1860): Lincoln’s election, without any support from the Southern states, was viewed as a direct threat to slavery and sparked the secession of Southern states from the Union.

2. In 1861 and 1862 what were the political and military strategies of the Confederate and Union leaders?

• Confederate Strategies: The Confederacy under President Jefferson Davis aimed to defend its territory and gain international recognition, particularly from Great Britain and France. Military strategies focused on defensive warfare, using the South’s knowledge of the land to their advantage, and hoping to wear down Union resolve. General Robert E. Lee and others also hoped to invade the North at key moments to force a negotiated peace.

• Union Strategies: The Union under President Abraham Lincoln and General Winfield Scott adopted the Anaconda Plan, which sought to blockade the Southern ports, control the Mississippi River, and divide the Confederacy. The goal was to squeeze the Confederate economy and isolate its territory. Military actions also aimed to preserve the Union and eventually abolish slavery, particularly after 1862 with the passing of the Emancipation Proclamation.

3. What are the ramifications of “total war”? How does it affect civilians and society?

• Total War is a strategy that seeks to break the enemy's will to fight by targeting not only military forces but also civilian infrastructure, resources, and morale.

• Ramifications: It results in widespread destruction of civilian property, infrastructure, and agricultural resources. In the American Civil War, this approach was particularly evident in Sherman’s March through Georgia, where cities and farms were destroyed. For civilians, total war leads to economic hardship, displacement, and loss of life. It also accelerates technological advancements in warfare and creates long-lasting social trauma.

4. Why were conscription policies controversial?

• Controversy arose because conscription, or the draft, was seen as unfair, especially in the North and South where wealthier individuals could avoid service by paying for substitutes. In the South, the law exempted large slaveholders, leading to resentment among poorer white Southerners. In the North, the New York City Draft Riots of 1863 exemplified popular resistance, particularly among immigrant and working-class groups who saw the draft as a mechanism to force them into a war that would benefit wealthy elites.

5. What is considered the political turning point in the war and why?

• The Emancipation Proclamation (1863) is often considered the political turning point in the Civil War. It shifted the war’s purpose from purely preserving the Union to also including the abolition of slavery. This not only undermined the Confederate economy but also secured moral high ground for the Union, gaining support from abolitionists and Europe, where many had opposed the Confederacy due to its association with slavery.

6. What role did women play in the war?

• Women took on crucial roles in the Civil War, both on the home front and in more direct military support roles. Many women worked as nurses, most famously Clara Barton, who later founded the American Red Cross. Women also ran households, farms, and businesses while men were away. Some, like Sarah Edmonds and Frances Clayton, disguised themselves as men and fought in the war. Additionally, women were involved in relief efforts, fundraising, and supporting the war effort in various capacities.

7. How did the economic policies of the Union redefine the character of the federal government?

• The Union’s economic policies expanded the role of the federal government significantly, including the establishment of a national banking system, issuance of greenbacks (paper currency), and the creation of the Pacific Railway Act to support the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad. These policies marked a shift toward a more centralized, interventionist federal government and laid the groundwork for future federal involvement in economic development.

8. To what extent did the Emancipation Proclamation free the slaves?

• The Emancipation Proclamation was a symbolic and strategic war measure that declared all slaves in Confederate-held territories to be free. However, it did not immediately free slaves in border states or areas under Union control. Its primary effect was to weaken the Confederate economy by depriving it of slave labor and to encourage enslaved people to escape to Union lines. It also paved the way for the passage of the 13th Amendment, which permanently abolished slavery.

9. How did the battles at Gettysburg and Vicksburg significantly change the tide of the war?

• Gettysburg (July 1863) marked the turning point of the war. The Union victory ended General Lee’s second invasion of the North and shifted the momentum in favor of the Union.

• Vicksburg (also July 1863) gave the Union control of the Mississippi River, splitting the Confederacy in two and crippling its ability to move troops and supplies.

10. How did Grant’s appointment as general in chief affect the course of the war?

• Ulysses S. Grant’s appointment in 1864 as general in chief marked a shift to a more aggressive, coordinated Union strategy. He used his experience from the Western Theater, applying relentless pressure on Confederate forces on all fronts, using multiple armies in tandem to stretch Confederate resources and manpower thin. His strategy of continuous engagement, despite heavy casualties, eventually wore down the Confederate forces.

11. To what extent were Grant and Sherman’s military strategy and tactics responsible for the defeat of the Confederacy?

• Grant and Sherman’s total war tactics, including Sherman’s March to the Sea, targeted not only Confederate armies but also the economic and psychological foundations of the Confederacy. Grant’s persistent offensives forced Lee into a defensive position, while Sherman’s devastating march destroyed vital infrastructure and morale in the South, hastening the Confederacy’s collapse.

12. How did Lincoln and Johnson approach Reconstruction differently?

• Abraham Lincoln sought a lenient, conciliatory approach, aiming to reintegrate the Southern states as quickly as possible with his 10 Percent Plan, which allowed Southern states to rejoin the Union once 10% of voters swore allegiance.

• Andrew Johnson, who succeeded Lincoln, adopted an even more lenient approach, pardoning most Confederates and allowing Southern states to re-establish white-controlled governments. His approach clashed with the more radical Republicans in Congress.

13. How did presidential and congressional reconstruction differ?

• Presidential Reconstruction, led by Lincoln and Johnson, was focused on quickly restoring the Southern states to the Union with minimal changes to Southern society.

• Congressional Reconstruction, led by Radical Republicans, sought to reshape Southern society by enforcing civil rights for freed slaves and restructuring Southern governments. The Reconstruction Acts of 1867 placed the South under military rule, requiring new state constitutions and ratification of the 14th Amendment.

14. Why was President Johnson impeached?

• President Andrew Johnson was impeached in 1868 for violating the Tenure of Office Act by removing Edwin Stanton, a Radical Republican ally, from his post as Secretary of War. While Johnson was acquitted in the Senate by a single vote, his impeachment highlighted the intense conflict between the presidency and Congress over Reconstruction policies.

15. Why did abolitionists and women’s suffrage advocates split during Reconstruction?

• The split arose over the issue of suffrage. Some abolitionists argued that the 15th Amendment, which granted voting rights to African American men, should be prioritized, while women’s suffrage advocates like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony felt betrayed by the exclusion of women from the amendment. This division led to the formation of separate suffrage organizations.

16. Why did sharecropping emerge and how did it affect freed blacks in the South?

• Sharecropping emerged as a compromise between landowners and freed African Americans who had little access to land. Landowners provided land and tools in exchange for a portion of the crop. While it allowed African Americans to work the land, sharecropping often led to cycles of debt and poverty, as many African Americans were exploited by landowners and locked into unfair contracts.

17. How did the Supreme Court limit Reconstruction policies enacted by Radical Republicans?

• The Supreme Court, particularly in cases like Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), narrowed the scope of Reconstruction-era reforms. Decisions like these upheld discriminatory practices, such as Jim Crow laws, which legalized segregation and disenfranchised African Americans, undermining the intentions of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments.

18. What role did the Panic of 1873 and the election of 1877 play in bringing about the end of Reconstruction?

• The Panic of 1873 triggered an economic depression, diverting national attention away from Reconstruction and weakening support for federal intervention in the South.

• The Compromise of 1877, following the disputed election of 1876, resulted in the withdrawal of federal troops from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction and allowing Southern states to re-establish white supremacy.

19. To what extent was Reconstruction a success? To what extent was it a failure?

• Successes: Reconstruction led to the abolition of slavery (13th Amendment), granted citizenship and equal protection under the law (14th Amendment), and ensured voting rights for African Americans (15th Amendment).

• Failures: The period failed to achieve lasting racial equality or economic justice for African Americans in the South, and by the end of the 19th century, Southern states had implemented discriminatory practices that disfranchised black voters and segregated society.

20. How would you describe the changes in the American West after Reconstruction?

• After Reconstruction, the American West saw a surge in settlement, supported by policies like the Homestead Act. Native American tribes faced violent displacement, particularly with the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad, and the land was increasingly taken over by settlers and ranchers. Indian Wars culminated in the forced assimilation of Native Americans.

21. What obstacles confronted independent Native Americans after Reconstruction?

• Native Americans faced violent displacement, the destruction of their traditional livelihoods, and the forced imposition of reservations. Additionally, their cultures were undermined by the policies of assimilation, such as the Dawes Act, which sought to divide communal tribal lands into individual plots.

22. What caused the so-called “Indian Wars”?

• The Indian Wars were sparked by U.S. expansion, the disruption of Native American hunting grounds, and violent confrontations over land and resources. The building of the Transcontinental Railroad and the slaughter of the bison exacerbated tensions, leading to numerous battles and massacres.

23. What can the Turner thesis teach us about the late 19th century U.S.?

• Frederick Jackson Turner’s Frontier Thesis argued that the frontier played a key role in shaping American democracy, individualism, and national identity. It suggested that the availability of free land on the frontier encouraged innovation, self-reliance