Pastorino_Psychology_5e_PPT_Ch09 GOLD

Chapter 9: Human Development

Nature-nurture debate: Explains how genetics (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) interact to affect development.
- Nature: Genetic inheritance influences behavior and traits.
- Nurture: Environmental circumstances shape human behavior.
- It is the interaction of both forces that leads to diversity in behavior.

09.01: Explain the nature-nurture issue.
09.02: Describe three prenatal development stages.
09.03: Detail physical changes across the lifespan related to cognitive development.
09.04: Compare Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s cognitive development theories.
09.05-09.17: Additional objectives covering moral reasoning theories (Kohlberg and Gilligan), attachment patterns, parenting styles, Erikson’s psychosocial development, gender-schema theory, adulthood changes, and attitudes towards dying.

Stages of Prenatal Development:
- Germinal stage: Cell division begins after fertilization.
- Embryonic stage: Major organs and systems develop.
- Fetal stage: Continued growth and maturation; 24 weeks is the age of viability.
Importance of a positive prenatal environment:
- Teratogens (e.g., alcohol, drugs) can harm the embryo.
- Sensitive periods exist where specific organs are more vulnerable.

Piaget’s Theory:
- Cognitive development occurs in stages:
  - Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Knowledge through senses and actions;
    - Object permanence develops.
  - Preoperational (2-7 years): Symbolic thinking emerges, lacks conservation, egocentric.
  - Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Logical thinking develops, can perform operations on concrete objects.
  - Formal Operational (11+ years): Abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning.
Vygotsky’s Theory:
- Emphasizes social interactions and culture's influence on cognitive development.
- Zone of Proximal Development: Gap between what a child can do solo and what they can do with help (scaffolding).

Kohlberg’s Stages:
- Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment.
- Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange (what best serves the self).
- Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships (conformity).
- Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order (law and order).
- Stage 5: Social Contract (individual rights vs. societal rules).
- Stage 6: Universal Principles (own moral code).
Gilligan’s Theory: Emphasized differences in male and female moral reasoning; criticized Kohlberg's perspective as male-biased, focusing more on relationships and care.

Temperament Styles: Easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up, influenced by biological factors.
Attachment Styles:
- Secure, Avoidant, Resistant, Disorganized attachment styles developed from initial caregiver interactions.
Baumrind's Parenting Styles:
- Authoritarian: High control, low warmth.
- Authoritative: Balanced control, warmth, responsive.
- Permissive: Low control, mixed warmth.
- Neglectful: Low control and warmth.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development:
- Trust vs. Mistrust: Infants form trust based on caregiving.
- Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt: Toddlers learn autonomy; balance independence and dependence.
- Initiative vs. Guilt: Preschoolers gain initiative to explore and act.
- Industry vs. Inferiority: School-age children compare themselves with peers.

Emerging Adulthood: The transitional period between adolescence and adulthood characterized by exploring education, relationships, and careers.
Variations in Social Relations: Examination of relationships such as dating, cohabitation, and impact of divorce on families and children.

Kübler-Ross’s Stages of Grief:
- Stages include Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, and Acceptance.
Grief Response: Bereavement differs across cultures, involving rituals to process loss.

Understanding of physical changes during development, implications of prenatal environments, cognitive development theories (Piaget and Vygotsky), influences on moral reasoning, attachment patterns, and stages of psychosocial development.
Comprehensive knowledge of the interplay of these elements throughout human life is essential for grasping human behavior variations.