Late 19th and Early 20th Century Global Political and Cultural Developments
The Nature of Legislative Bodies and Sham Democracies
Conceptual Structure and Purpose of Sham Legislatures - In certain historical contexts, specifically in Germany, legislative bodies were established to resemble those of more democratic nations like England or France, but functioned primarily as a "sham." - Process of Recommendation vs. Legislation: In the German system (the Reichstag), the body would debate policies for thousands of hours and then humbly implore the Emperor to consider the law. The Emperor, or King, maintained the power to dismiss these recommendations entirely. - Comparison with England: Unlike the German system, if the British Parliament debates a topic and reaches a decision, that decision literally becomes law. - Psychological Motivation for Government: The creation of these systems was an attempt to trick the populace into believing they had a voice in government following the models of England or France. It reflected a global trend where citizens increasingly desired an actual say in their country's governance.
Political Developments and Suffrage in Great Britain
Major Political Parties (circa 1900) - Historically, the two primary parties were the Liberals and the Conservatives. - The Conservative party is also frequently referred to as the Tories. - The Labour Party: Emerged around the year 1900. It claimed to speak specifically for the interests of the workers. Over time, the Labour party gained prominence, eventually overtaking the Liberal party.
Expansion of Voting Rights (1918) - Britain passed successive laws expanding the right to vote. By 1918, the thresholds reached were: - Males over the age of . - Women over the age of .
Debate Over Women's Suffrage - A specific phase of legislative debate involved granting the right to vote to unmarried women over a certain age before granting it to married women. - Arguments against married women voting: Critics argued that because a husband could already vote, a wife's vote was unnecessary as they were "on the same team." There was also a concern that women might be overly influenced by their husbands. - Cultural Context (Mary Poppins Reference): The speaker references the "old" Mary Poppins movie as a depiction of a middle-class English family during this era. The mother is portrayed as a suffragette or suffragist (a women's rights activist), illustrating the political friction within households where the husband might dismiss women's rights as "nonsense."
Parliamentary Instability and Unity in France
The Multi-Party System Problem - France utilized a parliamentary system, but it suffered from a severe lack of unity compared to England. - The primary issue was the existence of a high number of political parties—approximately a dozen (12). - Because no single party held a majority, passing laws required forming complex coalitions.
Difficulties of the Majority Vote: In a system with 12 groups, a party representing only of the population must persuade several smaller groups (e.g., those with or of the vote) to align with them. This fragmentation made the French system difficult to manage, a problem that continues to plague some modern parliamentary systems.
Monarchy and Ethnic Conflict in Germany and Austria-Hungary
Dominant Social Classes - In Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, the "old rulers"—nobles, kings, and emperors—remained the dominant political forces.
Germany's Power Dynamics - Even with a Reichstag and universal male suffrage, Germany functioned primarily as a monarchy. - The Junkers: This was the name for the powerful, large landowners (nobles) in Prussia who actively sought to prevent the country from becoming a true democracy or republic. - Otto von Bismarck: A key aristocrat/noble and leader who worked with the Junkers to maintain traditional power structures against the rise of the middle and working classes.
Austria-Hungary's Ethnic Strife - Emperor Franz Josef: The ruler who often bypassed the parliament entirely. - Parliamentary Dysfunction: The parliament was plagued by conflict between various ethnic groups (e.g., Austrians, Czechs, and Poles). - Language Conflict: The Austrians spoke German and conducted all government business and schooling in German. Other ethnic groups, such as the Czechs and Poles, demanded that schools and government function in their respective native languages. Parliament became a venue for constant arguments rather than lawmaking.
Hungary's Internal Policies: The Hungarian portion of the empire was noted for being particularly oppressive toward its own ethnic minorities (such as Romanians), as the Hungarians believed themselves more fit for rule.
Imperial Russia: Traditionalism and the 1905 Revolution
Social Stagnation: Russia is described as being consistently "behind the times." It was less industrialized, more traditional, and the nobility held more power than in Western Europe.
Desire for Reform: The educated Russian middle class saw the development of other European nations and wanted Russia to modernize. They argued that remaining traditional was a strategic disadvantage; if Russia went to war with a modern neighbor, it would be "stomped."
Bloody Sunday (Saint Petersburg, 1905) - The Event: A massive group of workers marched to the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg to present a peaceful petition of grievances to the Czar. - Psychological Context (Czar as Father): The Czar was viewed traditionally as a "father figure" over his people, based on the divine justification for monarchy (as God is Father to humanity, the Czar is father to the Russian people). The petitioners arrived humbly, seeking help from their "father." - The Tragedy: The Czar was not present. Guards became spooked by the crowd and fired upon them, killing hundreds. This led to widespread strikes across Russia. - Consequences: The massacre undermined faith in the Czar. He was no longer seen as a loving father but as an "abusive father." Within 15 years, the monarchy would be completely abolished.
The Duma: Following the unrest, the Czar created the Duma (a legislative branch) and granted some civil liberties. However, within a year or two, the Czar began ignoring the Duma as it pushed for more modern reforms than the nobles were willing to accept.
The Rise of the United States as a Global Power
Economic Dominance: By 1900, the United States had become the richest nation in the world, leading in the production of steel, iron, and general industrial output.
Acquisition of Territory (American Empire) - Late 1800s: The U.S. acquired the Samoan Islands and controlled the sugar industry in the Hawaiian Islands. - Spanish-American War: Following the defeat of Spain, the U.S. acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. - These moves were driven by the fear of falling behind European powers who were actively acquiring colonies (imperialism).
European Alliances and Territorial Disputes
Bismarck's Diplomacy: Bismarck sought to keep Germany powerful while preventing other nations from ganging up on it. He formed an alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy (the Central Powers) and initially tried to maintain a friendship with Russia.
The Franco-Prussian War and Unification - Germany was unified through the leadership of Prussia, which utilized its powerful army to bring various German states together. - The unification was finalized after the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War. - The German Empire was officially declared in the palace of the defeated French.
Alsace and Lorraine: - These were two border territories in Eastern France that Germany seized after the war in 1870. - Ethnic Makeup: The region was a mix; while culturally German in language, many residents were loyal to France because it was a free republic with civil liberties. - French Revenge: The loss of these territories caused long-standing bitterness in France, leading to a desire for revenge that directly contributed to the start of World War I in 1914.
The Culture of Modernity (1870–1914)
Modernism: A movement where writers and artists rebelled against traditional linear and realistic styles used since the Renaissance.
Literature: Writers like Henrik Ibsen and Émile Zola (Naturalism) addressed social problems such as alcoholism, urban slums, and women's roles. Conversely, Symbolists believed art should reflect the human mind rather than criticize society.
Painting and Art Styles - Impressionism: Started in France (1870s). Artists like Claude Monet painted nature directly, focusing on light, water, and sky. - Post-Impressionism: Vincent van Gogh used color as its own language to paint feelings and spiritual experiences. - Cubism: Created by Pablo Picasso around 1905, using geometric designs to recreate reality in the viewer's mind. - Abstract Art: Wassily Kandinsky (1910) sought to avoid visual reality entirely, using only line and color to speak to the soul.
Architecture (Functionalism): Led by Louis H. Sullivan, using reinforced concrete, steel frames, and electric elevators to create "skyscrapers" that were plain and stripped of unnecessary ornamentation.
Music: Igor Stravinsky revolutionized music with expressive sounds and bold rhythms. His ballet, The Rite of Spring (Paris, 1913), caused a near-riot due to its unconventionality compared to traditional classical music like Mozart or Beethoven.
Scientific Advancements and the Growth of Uncertainty
The Decline of the Mechanical Universe: In the 1800s, people followed the Newtonian view of the universe as a giant machine made of solid atoms. New discoveries challenged this.
Marie Curie: Discovered radium, which proved that energy/radiation came from within the atom itself, suggesting atoms were active worlds rather than solid material bodies.
Albert Einstein: Provided a new view through the Special Theory of Relativity. - Stated that space and time are not absolute but relative to the observer. - Matter is simply another form of energy. - This discovery introduced a sense of "uncertainty" to the physical universe.
Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis - In The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), Freud argued that human behavior is determined by past experiences and internal forces hidden in the unconscious. - He developed psychoanalysis, a method where a therapist probes a patient's memory to retrace repressed thoughts to childhood origins to heal the patient.
Questions & Discussion
Q: Who are the two parties in the British parliament at this time?
A: (Gavin) The Liberals and the Conservatives. A third, the Labour Party, emerged in 1900 to represent workers.
Q: Who had the right to vote in Britain by 1918?
A: (Jacob) Males over 21 and women over 30.
Q: Why was France's parliamentary system less effective than England's?
A: (Escalita/Gavin) There was little unity due to the existence of about a dozen political parties with different beliefs.
Q: In Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, who still dominates?
A: The old rulers—nobles, kings, and emperors.
Q: Who was trying to prevent Germany from becoming a democracy?
A: (Thomas) Bismarck and his allies, specifically the Junker class (landowning nobles).
Q: What happened during "Bloody Sunday" in Russia?
A: Workers brought a petition to the Czar's Winter Palace; they were fired upon by guards, leading to hundreds of deaths and widespread strikes.
Q: What territories did the US acquire at the end of the 19th century?
A: Samoan Islands, Hawaii (sugar industry control), Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.