AP Human Geography 10.2 Notes

Key Issue: Where Are Inequalities in Development Found?

Unequal and Uneven Development

  • Learning Outcome 10.2.1 - Describe the U.N.'s Measures of Inequality

    • Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI):

    • Definition: The IHDI takes into account the extent of inequality within a country.

    • Comparison with HDI: If the IHDI is lower than the Human Development Index (HDI), this indicates greater inequality.

    • Significance: The larger the difference between IHDI and HDI, the greater the inequality present in the country.

    • Notable regions: The lowest scores on the IHDI are observed in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.

  • Internal Variations in GNI per Capita:

    • Observations: Extreme regional internal variations in Gross National Income (GNI) per capita are noted in developing countries, with examples including:

    • Turkey: Wealth is significantly higher in the western regions compared to the eastern parts of the country.

    • Brazil: The highest wealth concentration is found in the Southeast region, particularly in urban areas.

  • 20th Century Trends:

    • In developed countries, notably the U.S., regional internal variations in wealth were less significant due to the commitment of wealth towards public goods such as healthcare and education, making these resources more accessible.

Gender Inequality

  • Learning Outcome 10.2.2 - Describe the U.N.'s Measures of Gender Inequality

    • Factors Limiting Women's Participation:

    • Cultural barriers.

    • Legal restrictions that hinder women’s access to development benefits.

    • Gender-Related Development Index (GDI):

    • Definition: The GDI measures the gender gap in human development achievements in terms of:

      • Income.

      • Education.

      • Life expectancy.

    • Global GDI: In an ideal scenario with a perfect GDI, a country would score 1.0, indicating that women's HDI is equal to men's HDI.

    • Current average GDI: The average female HDI in relation to males indicates that women’s HDI is approximately 70% of men’s global HDI.

    • Regional Observations:

    • The lowest GDI scores are found in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southwest Asia & North Africa.

    • Examples from Figure 10-19:

    • Countries with a GDI of 0.975 or higher:

      • United States,

      • France,

      • Prussia.

    • Countries with a GDI of less than 0.930:

      • Uganda,

      • Indonesia,

      • India.

    • Gender Inequality Index (GII):

    • Measures the gender gap in three dimensions:

      • Reproductive health.

      • Labor market participation.

      • Empowerment.

    • GII score implications:

      • A score of 0 indicates equality between genders, whereas a score of 1 indicates maximum gender inequality.

    • Regions with the highest GII levels:

      • Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southwest Asia.

    • Major factor in these regions' inequality: Reproductive health.

    • UN's Observations:

    • The most improvement in GII over time has been observed in Southwest Asia and North Africa.

    • Reasons for the U.S.'s lower than expected GII:

      • High teenage birth rate among women.

      • Low percentage of women in national leadership positions (estimated at 6%).

Gender Empowerment and Employment

  • Learning Outcome 10.2.3 - Describe Empowerment-Related Components of Gender Inequality

    • Definition of Empowerment: The ability of women to achieve improvements in their social, political, and economic status.

    • Factors Affecting Empowerment:

    • Percentage of seats held by women in national legislatures.

    • Percentage of women who have completed some secondary education.

    • Countries with Female Representation:

    • The only country currently with a majority of women serving in its national parliament or congress is Rwanda.

    • The highest percentages of women in governance are found in Northern Europe, while the lowest are in Southwest Asia and North Africa.

    • Female Labor Force Participation Rate:

    • Definition: Measures the percentage of women holding a paying job outside the household.

    • Global Comparison: Approximately 51% of women participate in the labor force, contrasting with about 77% of men.

Reproductive Health

  • Learning Outcome 10.2.4 - Describe the Reproductive Health Elements of the GII

    • Categories for Reproductive Health in GII:

    • Maternal mortality rate: The number of deaths of women during childbirth per 100,000 live births.

    • Adolescent fertility rate: The number of births to women aged 15-19 per 1,000 women in that age group.

    • Maternal Mortality Rates:

    • Developed countries: Approximately 16 deaths per 100,000 live births.

    • Developing countries: Much higher rates, especially noted in sub-Saharan Africa.

    • Adolescent Fertility Rates:

    • Developed countries: Approximately 20 births per 1,000 women aged 15-19.

    • Developing countries: Much higher, recorded at 83 births per 1,000 women aged 15-19.

    • Geographical Terms:

    • North-South Split: A term used to describe the disparity between developed (north) and developing (south) countries, indicating a divide primarily along the equator.

    • Immanuel Wallerstein's World-Systems Analysis:

    • Describes the North-South divide as a core-periphery relationship.

    • Core countries: North America, Japan, and South Korea are identified as core nations, holding a high concentration of the world’s economic activity and wealth.