F & N ch 5

Contrast X-Ray Techniques: Involves injecting a substance that absorbs X-rays into a specific body compartment to visualize structures that differ from surrounding tissues.
Cerebral Angiography: Infusion of a radio-opaque dye into a cerebral artery for visualization of the cerebral circulatory system through X-ray photography.
Computed Tomography (CT): Study of brain and internal structures; uses a series of X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional views of the living brain.

Position Emission Tomography (PET): First brain imaging method; uses fluorescent glucose (FDG) injected into the carotid artery; active neurons metabolize glucose, allowing visualization of brain activity.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Measures radio-frequency waves emitted from hydrogen atoms aligned in a magnetic field to create detailed images of the brain. Better spatial resolution than CT.
Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI): Identifies bundles of axons and views interconnectivity in the brain.
Functional MRI (fMRI): Visualizes increases in oxygenated blood flow to active brain regions (BOLD signal) during cognitive tasks. Generally considered superior to PET scans.

Functional Ultrasound Imaging (FUS): Measures changes in blood volume in specific brain regions; advantages include being cost-effective, portable, and applicable in humans.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): Uses a magnetic field to inhibit or activate areas of the cortex by positioning a coil near the skull.
Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (TES): Uses electrodes placed on the scalp to stimulate electric currents in certain brain areas.
Transcranial Ultrasound Stimulation (TUS): Can activate subcortical structures using ultrasound waves.

Electroencephalography (EEG): Measures gross electrical activity of the brain; EEG signals reflect cumulative electrical events.
Event-Related Potentials (ERPs): Changes in the EEG triggered by sensory stimuli, reflecting neural processing.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG): Measures magnetic fields produced by neuronal activity at the scalp.

Electromyography (EMG): Records muscle tension; Electrooculography (EOG) measures eye movements using electrodes.
Skin Conductance Level (SCL): Assesses baseline skin conductance related to emotional states; transient changes related to specific stimuli are measured.
Cardiovascular Measures: Includes heart rate (ECG/EKG) and blood pressure (hypertension defined as over 140/90 mmHg).

Stereotaxic Surgery: Devices precisely position electrodes or instruments deep within the brain for experimental purposes.
Stereotaxic Atlas: Used to locate specific brain structures, similar to geographic atlases.

Aspiration Lesions: Removal of cortical tissue to study effects.
Radio-Frequency Lesions: Small lesions in subcortical areas to assess function.
Reversible Lesions: Temporarily inhibit brain activity for experimental observation.

Intracellular and Extracellular Recording: Measures electrical activity at single cell-level or overall neuronal activity.
Multiple Unit Recording: Captures simultaneous activity from multiple neurons.

Cerebral Dialysis: Measures extracellular concentrations of specific neurotransmitters.
Immunocytochemistry: Locates neuroproteins using antibody labeling techniques.
Situ Hybridization: Uses nucleic acid sequences to locate proteins.

Gene Knockout Techniques: Procedures for inactivating genes to study effects on behavior and physiology, using proteins like melanopsin to investigate circadian rhythms.
Gene Editing Techniques: Utilize CRISPR and associated methods to edit genes at specific developmental times.
Optogenetics: Uses light to control neuronal activity with light-sensitive proteins, allowing manipulation of specific cells with high spatial and temporal resolution.

Standardized Tests: Identify brain damage and cognitive functions, with batteries of tests designed to surface specific deficits.