THE BEST AP PSYCHOLOGY CRAM SHEET

History and Approaches

Psychology is derived from physiology (biology) and philosophy.
Early Approaches:
- Structuralism: Used introspection to determine the underlying structures of the mind.
- Functionalism: Analyzed the purpose of behavior.
Approaches Key Words:
- Evolutionary – Genes
- Humanistic – free will, choice, ideal, actualization
- Biological – Brain, NTs
- Cognitive – Perceptions, thoughts
- Behavioral – learned, reinforced
- Psychoanalytic/dynamic – unconscious, childhood
- Sociocultural – society
- Biopsychosocial – combo of above
People:
- Mary Calkins: First Fem. Pres. of APA
- Charles Darwin: Natural selection & evolution
- Dorothea Dix: Reformed mental institutions in U.S.
- Stanley Hall: 1st pres. of APA 1st journal
- William James: Father of American Psychology – functionalist
- Wilhem Wundt: Father of Modern Psychology – structuralist
- Margaret Floy Washburn – 1st fem. PhD
- Christine Ladd Franklin – 1st fem.

Research Methods

Experiment:
- Adv: researcher controls variables to establish cause and effect
- Disadv: difficult to generalize
- Independent Variable: manipulated by the researcher
  - Experimental Group: received the treatment (part of the IV)
  - Control Group: placebo, baseline (part of the IV)
  - Placebo Effect: show behaviors associated with the exp. group when having received placebo
  - Double-Blind: Exp. where neither the participant or the experimenter are aware of which condition people are assigned to
- Dependent Variable: measured variable (is DEPENDENT on the independent variable)
Operational Definition: clear, precise, typically quantifiable definition of your variables – allows replication
Confound: error/flaw in study
Random Assignment: assigns participants to either control or experimental group at random – minimizes bias, increase chance of equal representation
Random Sample: method for choosing participants – minimizes bias
Validity: accurate results
Reliability: same results every time
Naturalistic Observation:
- Adv: real world validity (observe people in their own setting)
- Disadv: No cause and effect
Correlation:
- Adv: identify relationship between two variables
- Disadv: No cause and effect (CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION)
  - Positive Correlation – Variables vary in the same direction
  - Negative Correlation – variables vary in opposite directions
  - The stronger the # the stronger the relationship REGARDLESS of the pos/neg sign
Case Study:
- Adv. Studies ONE person (usually) in great detail – lots of info
- Disadv: No cause and effect
Descriptive Stats: shape of the data
- Measures of Central Tendency:
  - Mean: Average (use in normal distribution)
  - Median: Middle # (use in skewed distribution)
  - Mode: occurs most often
Inferential Statistics: establishes significance (meaningfulness). Significant results = NOT due to chance
Ethical Guidelines (APA)
- Confidentiality
- Informed Consent
- Debriefing
- Deception must be warranted

Biological Basis

Sensory neurons – receive signals
Aferent neurons – Accept signals
Motor neurons – send signals
Eferent neurons – signal Exits
Neuron: Basic cell of the NS
- Dendrites: Receive incoming signal
- Soma: Cell body (includes nucleus)
- Axon: AP travels down this
- Myelin Sheath: speeds up signal down axon
- Terminals: release NTs – send signal onto next neuron
- Synapse: gap b/w neurons
Action Potential: movement of sodium and potassium ions across a membrane sends an electrical charge down the axon
- All or none law: stimulus must trigger the AP past its threshold, but does not increase the intensity of the response (flush the toilet)
- Refractory period: neuron must rest and reset before it can send another AP (toilet resets)
Central NS: Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral NS: Rest of the NS
- Somatic NS: Voluntary movement
- Autonomic NS: Involuntary (heart, lungs, etc)
  - Sympathetic NS: Arouses the body for fight/flight (generally activates)
  - Parasympathetic NS: Established homeostasis after a sympathetic response (generally inhibits)
Neurotransmitters (NTs): Chemicals released in the synaptic gap, received by neurons
- GABA: Major inhibitory NT
- Glutamate: Major Excitatory NT
- Dopamine: Reward & movement
- Serotonin: Moods and emotion
- Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory
- Epinephrine & Norepinephrine: sympathetic NS arousal
- Endorphins: pain control, happiness
- Oxytocin: love and bonding
Agonist: drug that mimics a NT
Antagonist: drug that blocks a NT
Reuptake: Unused NTs are taken back up into the sending neuron. SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) block reuptake – treatment for depression
Areas of the Brain:
- Hindbrain: oldest part of the brain
  - Cerebellum – movement (what does it take to ring a bell)
  - Medulla – vital organs (HR, BP)
  - Pons – sleep/arousal (Ponzzzzzz)
- Midbrain
  - Reticular formation: attention (if you can’t pay attention, You R F’d)
- Forebrain: higher thought processes
  - Limbic System
    - Amygdala: emotions, fear (Amy, da! You’re so emotional!)
    - Hippocampus: memory (if you saw a hippo on campus you’d remember it!)
  - Thalamus: relay center
  - Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasure center, eating behaviors
  - Broca’s Area: Inability to produce speech (Broca – Broken speech)
  - Wernicke’s Area: Inability to comprehend speech (Wernicke’s what?)
  - Cerebral Cortex: outer portion of the brain – higher order thought processes
    - Occipital Lobe: located in the back of the head - vision
    - Frontal Lobe: decision making, planning, judgment, movement, personality
    - Parietal Lobe: located on the top of the head - sensations
    - Temporal Lobe: located on the sides of the head (temples) – hearing and face recognition
    - Somatosensory Cortex: map of our sensory receptors –in parietal lobe
    - Motor Cortex: map of our motor receptors – located in frontal lobe
  - Corpus Callosum: bundle of nerves that connects the 2 hemispheres – sometimes severed in patients with severe seizures – leads to “split-brain patients”
    - Lateralization: the brain has some specialized features – language is processed in the L Hemisphere
    - Split-brain experiments: done by Sperry & Gazzanaga.
    - Images shown to the right hemisphere will be processed in the left (& vice versa), patient can verbally identify what they saw

Sensation & Perception

Brain Plasticity: Brain can “heal” itself
Nature vs. Nurture: Answer is BOTH
- Twin Studies:
  - Identical twins – Monozygotic (MZ)
  - Fraternal twins – Dizygotics (DZ)
- Genetics: MZ twins will have a higher percentage of also developing a disease
- Environment: MZ twins raised in different environments show differences
Endocrine System: sends hormones throughout the body
- Pituitary Gland: Controlled by hypothalamus. release growth hormones
- Adrenal Glands: related to sympathetic NS: releases adrenaline
Absolute Threshold: detection of signal 50% of time (is it there)
Difference Threshold (also called a just noticeable difference (JND) and follows Weber’s Law: two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum proportion. (Can you tell a change?)
Signal Detection Theory
Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation (can you feel your underwear?)
Perceptual Set: tendency to see something as part of a group – speeds up signal processing
Inattentional Blindness: failure to notice something b/c you’re so focused on another task (gorilla video)
Cocktail party effect: notice your name across the room when it’s spoken, when you weren’t previously paying attention
Visual System:
- Pathway of vision: light → cornea →pupil/iris → lens → retina → rods/cones → bipolar cells → ganglion cells → optic nerve → optic chiasm → occipital lobe
- Cornea – protects the eye
- Pupil/iris – controls amount of light entering eye
- Lens – focuses light on retina
- Fovea – area of best vision (cones here)
- Rods – black/white, dim light
- Cones – color, bright light
- Bipolar cells – connect rods/cones and ganglion cells
- Ganglion cells – opponent-processing occurs here
- Blind spot – occurs where the optic nerve leaves the eye
- Feature detectors – specialized cells that see motion, shapes, lines, etc. (experiments by Hubel & Weisel)
Theories of Color Vision:
- Trichromatic – three cones for receiving color (blue, red, green)
  - Explains color blindness - they are missing a cone type
- Opponent Process – complementary colors are processed in ganglion cells – explains why we see an afterimage
Visual Capture: Visual system overwhelms all others (nauseous in an IMAX theater – vision trumps vestibular)
Constancies: recognize that objects do not physically change despite changes in sensory input (size, shape, brightness)
Phi Phenomenon: adjacent lights blink on/off in succession – looks like movement (traffic signs with arrows)
Stroboscopic movement: motion produced by a rapid succession of slightly varying images (animations)
Monocular Cues (how we form a 3D image from a 2D image)
- Interposition: overlapping images appear closer
- Relative Size: 2 objects that are usually similar in size, the smaller one is further away
- Relative Clarity: hazy objects appear further away
- Texture Gradient: coarser objects are closer
- Relative Height: things higher in our field of vision look further away
- Linear Perspective: parallel lines converge with distance (think railroad tracks)
Binocular Cues: (how both eyes make up a 3D image)
- Retinal Disparity: Image is cast slightly different on each retinal, location of image helps us determine depth
- Convergence: Eyes strain more (looking inward) as objects draw nearer
Top-Down Processing: Whole → smaller parts
Bottom-Up Processing: Smaller Parts → Whole
Auditory System:
- Pathway of sound: sound → pinna → auditory canal → ear drum (tympanic membrane) → hammer, anvil, stirrup (HAS) → oval window → cochlea → auditory nerve → temporal lobes
- Outer Ear: pinna (ear), auditory canal
- Middle Ear: ear drum, HAS (bones vibrate to send signal)
- Inner Ear: cochlea – like COCHELLA (sounds 1st processed here)
Theories of Hearing: both occur in the cochlea
- Place theory – location where hair cells bends determines sound (high pitches)
- Frequency theory – rate at which action potentials are sent determines sound (low pitches)
Other Senses:
- Touch: Mechanoreceptors → spinal cord → thalamus → somatosensory cortex
- Pain: Gate-control theory: we have a “gate” to control how much pain is experienced
- Kinesthetic: Sense of body position
- Vestibular: Sense of balance (semicircular canals in the inner ear effect this)
- Taste (gustation): 5 taste receptors: bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory)
- Smell (olfaction): Only sense that does NOT route through the thalamus 1st. Goes to temporal lobe and amygdala
Gestalt Psychology: Whole is greater than the sum of its parts
- Gestalt Principles:
  - Figure/ground: organize information into figures objects (figures) that stand apart from surrounds (back ground)
  - Closure: tendency to mentally fill in gaps
  - Proximity: tendency to group things together that appear near each other
  - Similarity: tendency to group things together based off of looks
  - Continuity: tendency to mentally form a continuous line

States of Consciousness

States of Consciousness:
- Higher-Level: controlled processes – totally aware
- Lower-Level: automatic processing (daydreaming, phone numbers)
- Altered States: produced through drugs, fatigue, hypnosis
- Subconscious: Sleeping and dreaming
- No awareness: Knocked out
Metacognition: Thinking about thinking
Sleep:
- Beta Waves: awake
- Alpha Waves: high amp., drowsy
- Stage 1: light sleep
- Stage 2: bursts of sleep spindles
- Stage 3 (delta waves: Deep sleep
- Stage 4: extremely deep sleep
- Rapid Eye Movement (REM): dreaming
- Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM occurs inb/w each cycle. REM lasts longer throughout the night
Circadian Rhythm: 24-hour biological clock
- Body temp and awareness change due to this
- Controlled by the Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the brain
- Explains jet lag
Sleep Disorders:
- Insomnia: Inability to fall asleep (due to stress/anxiety)
- Sleep walking: (due to fatigue, drugs, alcohol)
- Night terrors: extreme nightmares – NOT in REM sleep – typical in children
- Narcolepsy: fall asleep out of nowhere (due to deficiency in orexin)
- Sleep Apnea: stop breathing suddenly while asleep (due to obesity usually)
Dream Theories:
- Freud’s Unconscious Wish Fulfillment: Dreaming is gratification of unconscious desires and needs
  - Latent Content: hidden meaning of dreams
  - Manifest Content: obvious storyline of dream
- Activation Synthesis: Brain produces random bursts of energy – stimulating lodged memories. Dreams start random then develop meaning
Hypnosis:
- It Can: Reduce pain, help you relax
- It CANNOT: give you superhuman strength, make you regress, make you do things against your will
Psychoactive Drugs:
- Triggers dopamine release in the brain
- Depressants: Alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, opiates (narcotics)
  - Decrease sympathetic NS activation, highly addictive
- Stimulants: Amphetamines, Cocaine, MDMA (ecstasy), Caffeine, Nicotine
  - Increase sympathetic NS activation, highly addictive
- Hallucinogens: LSD, Marijuana
  - Causes hallucinations, not very addictive
- Tolerance: Needing more of a drug to achieve the same effects
- Dependence: Become addicted to the drug – must have it to avoid withdrawal symptoms
- Withdrawal: Psychological and physiological symptoms associated with sudden stoppage. Unpleasant – can kill you.

Learning

Classical Conditioning: PAVLOV!
- Unconditioned Stimulus (US): brings about response w/o needing to be learned (food)
- Unconditioned Response (UR): response that naturally occurs w/o training (salivate)
- Neutral Response (NS): stimulus that normally doesn’t evoke a response (bell)
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS): once neutral stimulus that now brings about a response (bell)
- Conditioned Response (CR): response that, after conditioning, follows a CS (salivate)
- Contiguity: Timing of the pairing, NS/CS must be presented immediately BEFORE the US
- Acquisition: process of learning the response pairing
- Extinction: previously conditioned response dies out over time
- Spontaneous Recovery: After a period of time the CR comes back out of nowhere
- Generalization: CR to like stimuli (similar sounding bell)
- Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS
Contingency Model: Rescorla & Wagner – classical conditioning involves cognitive processes
Conditioned Taste Aversion (ONE-TRIAL LEARNING): John Garcia – Innate predispositions can allow classical conditioning to occur in one trial (food poisoning)
Counterconditioning: Little Albert and John Watson (father of behaviorism) – conditioned a fear in a baby (only to countercondition – remove it- later on)
Operant Conditioning: SKINNER!
- Law of Effect (Thorndike): Behaviors followed by pos. outcomes are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken a behavior (cat in the puzzle box)
- Principles of Operant Cond:
  - Pos. Reinforcement: Add something nice to increase a behavior (gold star for turning in HW)
  - Neg. Reinforcement: Take away something bad/annoying to increase a behavior (put on seatbelt to take away annoying car signal)
  - Pos. Punishment: Add something bad to decrease a behavior (spanking)
  - Neg. Punishment: Take away something good to decrease a behavior (take away car keys)
  - Primary Reinforcers: innately satisfying (food and water)
  - Secondary Reinforcers: everything else (stickers, high-fives)
    - Token Reinforcer: type of secondary- can be exchanged for other stuff (game tokens or money)
  - Generalization: respond to similar stimulus for reward
  - Discrimination: stimulus signals when behavior will or will not be reinforced (light on means response are accepted)
  - Extinction / Spontaneous Recovery: same as classical conditioning
  - Premack Principle: high probability activities reinforce low probability activities (get extra min at recess if you everyone turns in their HW)
  - Overjustification Effect: reinforcing behaviors that are intrinsically motivating causes you to stop doing them (give a child 5$ for reading when they already like to read – they stop reading)
  - Shaping: use successive approximations to train behavior (reward desired behaviors to teach a response – rat basketball)
  - Chaining: tie together several behaviors
  - Continuous Reinforcement schedule: Receive reward for every response
  - Fixed Ratio schedule: Reward every X number of response (every 10 envelopes stuffed get )
  - Fixed Interval schedule: Reward every X amount of time passed (every 2 weeks get a paycheck)
  - Variable Ratio schedule: Rewarded after a random number of responses (slot machine)
  - Variable Interval schedule: Rewarded after a random amount of time has passed (fishing)
  - Variable schedules are most resistant to extinction (how long will keep playing a slot machine before you think its broken?)
Social (Observational) Learning: BANDURA!
- Modeling Behaviors: Children model (imitate) behaviors. Study used BoBo dolls to demonstrate the following
  - Prosocial – helping behaviors
  - Antisocial – mean behaviors
Misc Learning Types
- Latent learning (Tolman!) – learning is hidden until useful (rats in maze get reinforced half way through, performance improved
  - Cognitive maps – mental representation of an area, allows navigation if blocked
- Insight learning (Kohler!) – some learning is through simple intuition (chimps with crates to get bananas)
- Learned Helplessness (Seligman!) – no matter what you do you never get a positive outcome so you just give up (word scrambles)

Cognition

Encoding: Getting info into memory
- Automatic encoding – requires no effort (what did you have for breakfast?)
- Effortful encoding – requires attention (school work)
- Shallow, intermediate, deep processing: the more emphasis on MEANING the deeper the processing, and the better remembered
- Imagery – attaching images to information makes it easier to remember (shoe w/ spaghetti laces)
- Self-referent encoding – we better remember what we’re interested in (you’d remember someone’s phone number who you found extremely attractive)
- Dual encoding – combining different types of encoding aids in memory
- Chunking – break info into smaller units to aid in memory (like a phone #)
- Mnemonics – shortcuts to help us remember info easier
  - Acronyms – using letter to remember something (PEMDAS)
  - Method of loci – using locations to remember a list of items in order
- Context dependent memory – where you learn the info you best remember the info (scuba divers testing)
- State dependent memory – the physical state you were in when learning is the way you should be when testing (study high, test high)
Storage: Retaining info over time
- Information Processing Model – Sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory model
- Sensory Memory – stores all incoming stimuli that you receive (first you have to a pay attention)
  - Iconic Memory – visual memory, lasts 0.3 seconds
  - Echoic Memory – auditory memory, lasts 2-3 seconds
- Short Term Memory – info passes from sensory memory to STM – lasts 30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items
  - Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets the clock
- Working Memory Model splits STM into 2 – visual spatial memory (from iconic mem) and phonological loop (from echoic mem). A “central executive” puts it together before passing it to LTM
- Long term memory – lasts a life time
  - Explicit (Declarative): Conscious recollection
    - Episodic: events
    - Semantic: facts
  - Implicit (Nondeclarative): unconscious recollection
    - Classical conditioning
    - Priming: info that is seen earlier “primes” you to remember something later on (octopus, assassin, climate, bogeyman)
    - Procedural: skills
- Memory organization
  - Hierarchies: memory is stored according to a hierarchy
  - Semantic networks: linked memories are stored together
  - Schemas: preexisting mental concept of how something should look (like a restaurant)
- Memory storage
  - Acetylcholine neurons in the hippocampus for most memories
  - Cerebellum for procedural memories
  - Long-term potentiation: neural basis of memory – connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation (more firing of neurons)
Retrieval: Taking info out of storage
- Serial Position Effect: tendency to remember the beginning and the end of the list best
- Recall: remember what you’ve been told w/o cues (essays)
- Recognition: remember what you’ve been told w/ cues (MC)
- Flashbulb memories: particularly vivid memories for highly important events (9/11 attacks)
- Repressed memories: unconsciously buried memories – are unreliable
- Encoding failure: forget info b/c you never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the first place (which is the real penny)
- Encoding specificity principle: the more closely retrieval cues match the way we learned the info, the better we remember the info (like state dependent memory)
- Forgetting curve: recall decreases rapidly at first, then reaches a plateau after which little more is forgotten (EBBINGHAUS)
- Proactive interference: old info blocks new
- Retroactive interference: new info blocks old
- Misinformation effect: distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation (Loftus – lost in the mall, Disney land)
- Anterograde amnesia: amnesia moves forward (forget new info – 50 first dates)
- Retrograde amnesia: amnesia moves backwards (forget old info)
- Alzheimer’s Disease: caused by destruction of acetylcholine in hippocampus
Language
- Phonemes: smallest unit of sound (ch sound in chat)
- Morpheme: smallest unit that caries meaning (syllable)
- Grammar: rules in a language that enable us to communicate
- Semantics: set of rules by which we derive meaning (adding –ed makes something past tense)
- Syntax: rules for combining words into sentences (white house vs casa blanca)
- Babbling stage: infants babble 1st stage of speech
- One-word stage: duh
- Two-word stage: duh duh
- Theories of language development:
  - Imitation: Kids repeat what they hear – but they don’t do it perfectly
    - Overregularization: grammar mistake where children over use certain morphemes (I go-ed to the park)
  - Operant conditioning: reinforced for language use
  - Inborn universal grammar: theory comes from NOAM CHOMSKY – says that language is innate and we are predisposed to learn it
  - Critical period: period of time where something must be learned or else it cannot ever happen (language must be learned young – Genie the Wild Child)
  - Linguistic determinism: language influences the way we think (Hopi people do not have words for the past, thus cannot easily think about the past) developed by WHORF
Thinking
- Concepts: mental categories used to group objects, events, characteristics
- Prototypes: all instances of a concept are compared to an ideal example (what you first think of)
- Algorithms: step by step strategies that guarantee a solution (formula)
- Heuristics: short cut strategy (rule of thumb)
  - Representative Heuristic: make inferences based on your experience (like a stereotype) – assume someone must be a librarian b/c they’re quiet
  - Availability heuristic: relying on availability to judge the frequency of something (over estimating death due to plane crashes due to recent events)
- Functional Fixedness: keep using one strategy – cannot think outside of the box
- Belief bias: tendency of one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning by making invalid conclusions
- Belief perseverance: tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face on contrary evidence
- Inductive reasoning: data driven decisions, general → specific
- Deductive reasoning: driven by logic, specific → general
- Divergent thinking: ability to think about many different things at once

Motivation & Emotion

Theories of Motivation
- Instinct: complex behaviors have fixed patterns and are not learned (explains animal motivation)
- Drive Reduction: physiological need creates aroused tension (drive) that motivates you to satisfy the need (driven by homeostasis: equilibrium)
  - Primary drive: unlearned drive based on survival (hunger, thirst)
  - Secondary drive: learned drive (wealth or success)
- Optimum Arousal: humans aim to seek optimum levels of arousal – easier tasks requires more arousal, harder tasks need less
- Hierarchy of Needs: theory derived by MASLOW – needs lower in the pyramid have priority over needs higher in the pyramid
  - Calling – work because you love it. Lotsa happiness
- Intrinsic motivation: inner motivation – you do it b/c you like it
- Extrinsic motivation: motivation to obtain a reward (trophy)
Hunger
- Signals of hunger:
  - Stomach contractions tell us we’re hungry
  - Glucose (sugar) level is maintained by the pancreas (endocrine system).
  - Insulin decreases glucose. Too little glucose makes us hungry.
  - Orexin is released by the hypothalamus – telling us to eat.
  - Other chemicals include ghrelin, obestatin, and PPY
  - Lateral hypothalamus: when stimulated makes you hungry, when lesioned you will never eat again. (I’m LATE for lunch. I’m hungry. The LATEral hypothalamus makes you hungry.)
  - Ventromedial hypothalamus: when stimulated you feel full, when destroyed you eat eat eat eat (fat woman and cake)
  - Leptin: leptin signals the brain to reduce appetite
- Obesity:
  - Increased risk of heart attack, hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes
  - Can be genetic – adopted children resemble their biological parents
  - Set point: there is a control system that dictates how much fat you should carry – every person is different
- Eating Disorders:
  - Anorexia: weight loss of at least 15% ideal weight, distorted body image
    - Causes: overly critical parents, perfectionist tendencies, societal ideals
  - Bulimia: usually normal body weight, go through a binge-purge eating pattern (eat massive amounts, then throw up)
    - Causes: same as anorexia
Sexuality
- Biology of sex:
  - Hypothalamus: stimulation increases sexual behavior, destruction leads to sexual inhibition
  - Pituitary gland: monitors, initiates, and restricts hormones
    - Males – testosterone
    - Females - estrogen
  - Sexual Response Pattern: Excitement phase, plateau, orgasm, refractory period (resolution phase) (cannot “fire” again until you reset, guys only)
  - Alfred Kinsey: 1st researcher to conduct studies in sex, suggested that people were very promiscuous. Studies lacked a representative sample, created scale of homosexuality
  - Homosexuality: biological roots: differences in the brain, identical twins more likely to both be gay, later sons more likely to be (hormones from mom)
Thories of Emotions
- James-Lange: stimulus → physiological arousal → emotion
- Cannon-Bard: stimulus → physiological arousal & emotion simultaneously
- Schacter Two Factor: adds in cognitive labeling (bridge experiment) stimulus → arousal →interpret external cues → label emotion
- Some stimuli are routed directly to the amygdala bypassing the frontal cortex (gut reaction to a cockroach)
- Behavioral factors: there are SIX universal emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust, feat) seen across ALL cultures
- Non-verbal cues: gestures, duchenne smile (you can tell a real smile from a fake one)
- Facial feedback hypothesis: being forced to smile will make you happier (facial expressions influence emotion)
Stress and Health
- General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): three phases of a stress response (SELYE came up w/ this)
  - Alarm: body/you freak out in response to stress
  - Resistance: body/you are dealing with stress
  - Exhaustion: body/you cannot take any more, give up
- Type A Personality: rigid, stressful person, perfectionist. At risk for heart disease
- Type B Personality: laid back, nonstressed.
Industrial/Organizational Psych
- Industrial / Organizational Psych: psychological of the workplace – focuses on employee recruitment, placement, training, satisfaction, productivity
- Ergonomics / Human Factors: intersection of engineering and psych – focuses on safety and efficiency of human-machine interactions
- Hawthorne effect: productivity increases when workers are made to feel important
- Theory X management: manager controls employees, enforces rules. Good for lower level jobs
- Theory Y management: manger gives employees responsibility, looks for input. Good for high level jobs
- Employee Commitment:
  - Affective: emotional attachment (best type)
  - Continuance: stay due to costs of leaving
  - Normative: stay due to obligation (they paid for your school)
- Meaning of Work:
  - Job – no training, just do it for . No happiness
  - Career – work for advancement. Some happiness

Development

Prenatal Development
- Zygote: 0 – 14 days, cells are dividing
- Embryo: until about 9 weeks, vital organs being formed
- Fetus: 9 wks to birth, overall development
- Teratogens: external agents that can cause abnormal prenatal development (alcohol, drugs, etc)
  - Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): large amount of alcohol leads to FAS, causes deformities, mental retardation, death
Physical Development
- Maturation: natural course of development, occurs no matter what (walking)
- Reflexes: innate responses we’re born with
  - Rooting, sucking, swallowing, grasping, stepping
- Habituation: after continual exposure you pay less attention – used to test babies
- Eyes have the most limited development, takes till 1 year
  - Visual cliff: babies have to learn depth perception, so they will cross a “cliff”
- Other senses are fairly developed
- Brain development continues for a few years
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Dev.
- Schemas – concepts or frameworks that organize info
- Assimilation: incorporate new info into existing schema (aSSimlation – same stuff)
- Accommodation: adjust existing schemas to incorporate new information (ACcommodation - All Change)
- Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years: focused on exploring the world around them
  - Lack Object Permanence: Objects when removed from field of view are thought to disappear (peek-a-boo)
  - Dev. Sense of Self: by 2 yrs can recognize themselves in the mirror
- Pre-operational Stage: 2 – 7 years: use pretend play, developing language, using intuitive reasoning
  - Lack Conservation: recognize that substances remain the same despite changes in shape, length, or position (girls with juice in glasses)
  - Lack Reversibility: cannot do reverse operations (count out both 4+2 and 2+