Social Cognition, Biological Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Culture and psychology, and Indigenous psychology

Social Cognition and Influence

Social psychology studies how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others. Key topics include the need to belong, attitudes, persuasion, prejudice, and attribution.

The Need to Belong

Humans have a biological need for interpersonal bonds, which is evolutionarily adaptive. Social exclusion can lead to mood and anxiety problems, unhealthy behaviors, and increased aggression.

Attitudes

Attitudes are psychological tendencies expressed by evaluating entities with favor or disfavor. They consist of:

• Cognition (thoughts)
• Affect (feelings)
• Behavior (actions)

Attitude strength, importance, and accessibility influence our thinking. Attitudes can be implicit (unconscious) or explicit (deliberately formed).

Attitudes and Behavior

Attitudes don't always predict behavior. Factors such as accessibility, shared attitudes, and attitude strength increase predictability. The theory of planned behavior links specific attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control to behavior.

Attitude Change / Persuasion

The Yale Attitude Change Approach focuses on the source, context, message, and audience. The Elaboration Likelihood Model describes two routes to persuasion:

• Central Route: careful consideration of information.
• Peripheral Route: relies on superficial cues.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

People seek consistency among their attitudes and beliefs. Inconsistencies lead to dissonance, which individuals try to reduce through rationalization.

Self-Perception Theory

People infer their feelings by observing their own behavior, especially when initial feelings are unclear.

Culture & Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive dissonance varies across cultures. Individualistic cultures focus on self-esteem, while collectivist cultures emphasize social expectations.

Social Cognition

Social cognition involves how people think about themselves and the world. Schemas are organized patterns of thought. Identity is shaped by self-perceptions, values, beliefs, and the environment.

Prejudice

Prejudice includes stereotypes (overgeneralized beliefs), negative attitudes, in-group bias, and out-group homogeneity. Types include racism, sexism, religious prejudice, and homophobia.

Reducing Prejudice

Contact Hypothesis: Contact between groups can reduce prejudice under specific conditions like equal status and cooperation.

Racism

Racism can be subtle (political correctness), implicit (unknowing discrimination), or explicit (intentional harmful attitudes).

Ostracism

Ostracism (being ignored or rejected) affects belonging, self-esteem, control, and meaning.

Attribution

Attributions are explanations for behavior, influenced by internal (personal factors) and external (situational factors) causes.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overemphasize internal factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behavior.

Actor-Observer Effect

The actor-observer effect involves attributing others' behavior to internal causes while attributing our own actions to external causes.

Self-Serving Bias

Self-serving bias is the tendency to take credit for success and attribute failure to external causes.

Biological Psychology

Biological psychology studies the biological basis of behavior, crucial for understanding the heterogeneity of etiologies (genes, proteins, cells, circuits, environment) and holistic guidance involving lifestyle factors.

Learning Outcomes

• Understand the nervous system and its components.
• Understand the central and peripheral nervous systems.
• Understand the endocrine system.
• Understand the roles of genetics and environment.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The nervous system is the body’s communication network involving the brain and spinal cord. It controls movement, sensation, and automatic functions.

Basic Units of the Nervous System

• Neurons: process and transmit information.
• Glial Cells: immune cells, protect from infection and damage.
• Extracellular Matrix (ECM): environment surrounding brain cells.

Neuron Structure

• Dendrites: receive signals.

• Cell Body (Soma): integrates signals.

• Axon: transmits signals.

• Myelin Sheath: insulates axon.

• Nodes of Ranvier: facilitate rapid conduction.

• Axon Terminal: transmits signals to other cells.

  Glia

• Oligodendrocytes: wrap myelin around axons.

• Microglia: immune cells.

• Astrocytes: ensheath synapses and wrap around blood vessels.

Spinal Cord

• Afferent Fibers: carry sensory information to the brain.
• Efferent Fibers: carry motor commands from the brain.
• White Matter: myelinated axons.
• Gray Matter: cell bodies and synapses.
  • Posterior (Dorsal) Horn: sensory processing.
  • Lateral Horn: autonomic functions.
  • Anterior (Ventral) Horn: motor control.

Brain Structure

• Cerebrum: largest part, divided into hemispheres, gyri (ridges) and sulci (grooves).
• Cerebellum: motor coordination and balance.
• Brainstem: connects brain to spinal cord (midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata).

Lobes of the Brain

• Frontal Lobe: executive functions, planning.
• Parietal Lobe: sensory processing and spatial awareness.
• Temporal Lobe: auditory processing and memory.
• Occipital Lobe: visual processing.

Benefits of a Central Nervous System

• Processing external environment information.
• Monitoring internal states.
• Regulating internal states.

Homeostasis and Allostasis

• Homeostasis: maintaining a stable internal environment.
• Allostasis: achieving stability through change.
• Allostatic Load: cumulative burden of chronic stress.
• Allostatic Overload: stress response becomes damaging.

Peripheral Nervous System

• Central Nervous System: brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System: cranial nerves and spinal nerves
  • Autonomic Nervous System: controls heart muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.
    • Parasympathetic Division: "Rest and digest"
    • Sympathetic Division: "Active and alert"
  • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary skeletal muscles.

Somatic Nervous System

Involves upper motor neurons in the brain and lower motor neurons in the brain stem and spinal cord that connect to skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System

• Parasympathetic Nerves: promote "rest and digest" functions.
• Sympathetic Nerves: prepare body for "fight or flight."

Sympathetic Response

Fight, Flight, Freeze, and Fawn responses are characterized by increased heart rate, blood moving away from digestive organs, shaking, pupil dilation, and sweating.

Endocrine System

Includes the hypothalamus, pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, thymus gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovary glands (female), testis (male).

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis

Regulates stress and emotion. The hypothalamus releases CRF (corticotropin- releasing factor) and AVP (arginine vasopressin), which stimulate the pituitary gland to release ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone). ACTH then causes the adrenal glands to release cortisol and adrenaline.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal (HPG) Axis

Controls reproductive behaviors through the release of GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) from the hypothalamus. This stimulates the anterior pituitary to release LH (luteinizing hormone) and FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone), which affect the testes (testosterone) or ovaries (estrogen and progesterone).

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid (HPT) Axis

Regulates metabolism and mood. The hypothalamus releases TRH (thyrotropin- releasing hormone), which stimulates the pituitary to release TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone). TSH then stimulates the thyroid to release T4 and T3, which affect TH- sensitive cells.

Pineal Gland

Produces melatonin, which regulates sleep and circadian rhythms. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) inhibits melatonin production in response to light.

Genetics and Psychological Functioning

Genes are segments of DNA located on chromosomes. An allele is a variant form of a gene. Individuals can be homozygous (two identical alleles, e.g., SS, BB, bb) or heterozygous (two different alleles, e.g., Bb).

Genes in Brain Development

Genes orchestrate brain development (neurogenesis, migration, axon outgrowth, etc.).

Key developmental processes:

• Neurulation.
• Neurogenesis.
• Migration from the ventricular zone.
• Synaptogenesis.
• Competitive elimination.
• Programmed cell death.
• Myelination.
• Dendritic and axonal arborization.

Genes Across the Lifespan

Genes influence brain function throughout life by maintaining networks, regulating apoptosis and neurotransmitter activity, and facilitating waste clearance.

Epigenetics

Epigenetics involves DNA modifications that alter gene expression without changing the DNA sequence. Environmental factors influence these modifications.

Environment and the Brain

Various environmental factors influence the brain, including social interaction, stress, emotion, cognition, sleep, discrimination, socioeconomic disparities, pollutants, food, and exercise.

Biopsychosocial Model of Mental Health

Mental health is influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors.

Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology studies how the brain, body, and behavior change over the lifespan, including personality, behavior, cognition, and social, emotional, and biological domains.

Key Issues in Development

• Nature vs. Nurture: genetics vs. environment.
• Activity vs. Passivity: active vs. passive shaping.
• Continuity vs. Discontinuity: gradual vs. distinct stages.
• Universality vs. Context-Specificity: universal vs. varying processes.

Stages of Development

• Prenatal: Conception to birth.
• Perinatal: 20 weeks gestation to 28 days after birth.
• Infancy and Toddlerhood: Birth to 3 years.
• Preschool Period: 3 to 6 years.
• Middle Childhood: 6 to 12 years.
• Adolescence: 12 to 20 years.
• Emerging Adulthood: 18 to 25 years.
• Early Adulthood: 20 to 40 years.
• Middle Adulthood: 40 to 65 years.
• Late Adulthood: 65 to death

Studying Development: Research Designs

• Cross-sectional Designs: different ages at one time.
• Longitudinal Designs: same group over time.
• Sequential Designs: multiple age groups over time.

Prenatal Development

• Zygote: Formed at fertilization.
• Embryo: Formed after about 14 days through rapid cell division.
• Foetus: After 10 weeks, when all major structures (organs) have started to form.

Teratogens

Most damage occurs during the embryonic stage (2-10 weeks) and teratogens include:

• Infections.
• Drugs (alcohol, illicit drugs).
• Stress (Cortisol).
• Folate deficiency.

The Neonatal Environment

Apgar Test: Evaluates newborns based on heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, color, and reflex irritability.

Newborn Development

Newborns come with preloaded reflexes (Moro, Palmar, Swimming, Rooting).

Infant and Childhood Cognition: Piaget's Theory

• Cognitive development happens in discontinuous, sequential, and universal stages.
• Children are active explorers who construct knowledge through their own activity.
• Exploration leads to the creation of schemas (mental categories).
• Equilibrium is the effort by the organism to exist in harmony with its environment, reducing cognitive conflict (disequilibrium).

Schema Development

• Assimilation: Fitting new experiences into existing schemes.
• Accommodation: Modifying schemes as a result of new experiences.

Periods of Cognitive Development

• Sensorimotor Period (0-2 years): Object permanence
• Preoperational Period (2-7 years): Egocentrism, Animism, symbolic thinking.
• Concrete Operational Period (7-12 years): understanding basic concepts such as number, classification, and conservation.
• Formal Operational Period (12 years & up): abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Vygotsky’s Theory

• Social constructivist. Children are more like apprentices than tiny scientists. Scaffolding.

Attachment and Emotional Development

• Crying is a baby's only way to communicate needs.
• Attachment Theory (Bowlby): Emotional problems in orphans resulted from a lack of a strong affectional tie.
• Four stages of attachment:
  • Pre-attachment stage (birth to 6-8 weeks)
  • Attachment in the making (6-8 weeks to 6-8 months)
  • True attachment (6-8 months to 18 months)
  • Reciprocal relationships (18 months on)

Attachment Styles

Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test:

• Secure Attachment (60-70%)
• Insecure-avoidant Attachment (15-20%)
• Insecure-anxious (ambivalent) Attachment (10-15%)
• Disorganised Attachment (5-10%)

Anxiety in Infants

Stranger anxiety and Separation anxiety

Harlow’s Monkeys

Demonstrated that contact comfort is a more powerful contributor to attachment than food.

Consequences of Attachment

Attachment shapes future relationships . Early secure attachment predicts successful peer relationships.

Cognitive Development in Adolescence

Kohlberg’s Moral Reasoning:

• Pre-conventional.
• Conventional.
• Post-conventional.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

• Infant (0-18 months): Trust vs. Mistrust
• Toddler (18 months - 3 years): Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
• Preschool (3-5 years): Initiative vs. Guilt
• School Age (5-13 years): Industry vs. Inferiority
• Adolescence (13-21 years): Identity vs. Role Confusion
• Young Adult (21-39 years): Intimacy vs. Isolation
• Middle Adult (40-65 years): Generativity vs. Stagnation
• Older Adult (65 and older): Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Physical, Cognitive, and Social Development in Early Adulthood

Emerging Adulthood (18-25 years) is a period of development between adolescence and adulthood.

Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood

Neural connections peak cognitive abilities improve. Fluid and crystallised intelligence

Social Development in Early Adulthood

Becoming parents: enter Erikson's intimacy versus isolation stage.

Cognitive and Social Development in Middle and Late Adulthood. In late adulthood there may be noticeable declines in fluid intelligence, attention, and memory. Retirement is a major life event. Integrity vs. despair struggle occurs (Erikson).

Culture and Psychology

Culture and psychology discusses definitions dimensions, and frameworks.

What is Culture?

Culture is shared values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors that distinguish members of one group from members of others. Not nationality, race, or ethnicity. Cultural shift

Cultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology

Enculturation: Process by which values and norms of a culture are passed on to its members.

Cultural Psychologists: Study culture-specific ways.

Cross-Cultural Psychologists: Compare similarities and differences across cultures.

Cross-Cultural Psychology: Definition

Comparative study of behavior in different cultures. Look at both unique behaviors and universal actions.

Research Methods in Cultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology

Emic Perspective (culture-specific) and Etic Perspective (universal).

Challenges in Research

Research methods, equivalent samples, interpreting results, researcher bias, and sensitive issues.

Dimensions of Culture: Individualism-Collectivism

Individualism prioritizes individuals versus Collectivism prioritizes groups

Dimensions of Culture

Monochronic/Polychronic (Time). Cultural Display Rules (Emotion) Conversational distance (space) High/Low Context cultures. Tight/Loose Cultures

Vertical versus Horizontal

Vertical Individualistic vs. Vertical Collectivist. Horizontal Individualistic vs. Horizontal Collectivist.

Colonization and Diversification

Colonization: Invasion by a new group involving control and assertion of sovereignty that involves violence and exploits existing natural and human resources. Multiculturalism and Culture Shock.

Acculturation and Assimilation

Acculturation: Changes groups and individuals undergo when they encounter another culture.

Berry’s four orientations: Assimilation, integration, separation, marginalization.

Refugees and Asylum Seekers

A person whose claim has not yet been finally decided upon. Post-migration aspects of resettlement and acculturation can be very difficult and have increased rates of mental health.

Ethnic Identity

Ethnic identity is the culture, religion, geography, language, and practices shared by individuals connected by loyalty and kinship.

Culturally Responsive Psychologists

Psychologists being aware and respectful of value systems and authority structures of Indigenous peoples and people from diverse cultures.

Cultural Competence

Effectiveness in communicating and behaving appropriately with people from another culture, both in terms of understanding and being understood.

Australian Culture

Discussed in terms of society, language, religious worship, sports. Adapt more quickly.

Indigenous psychology

Covers Indigenous psychology in Australia, emphasizing the importance of understanding culture, addressing racism, and promoting social and emotional wellbeing (SEWB) for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.

Learning Objectives

• Cultural Shaping of Identities
• Racism and Its Impact
• Key Elements of Indigenous Psychology

Culture's Influence

We all have a culture Knowing helps. Culture shapes mental wellbeing.

Determinants of Health
Factors influencing health and wellbeing: systemic racism, access to healthcare, discrimination, language barriers, financial difficulties, isolation & loneliness, mental health issues, trauma, separation from family

Indigenous Australia

Longest continuing culture in the world.

Names for Australian Indigenous Peoples
First Nations/First Peoples Wurundjeri, Yorta Yorta, Bundjalung, Luritja Koorie, Murri, Noongar Community

Identity Definition

Definition is complex and characterized by identification, history, links, systems, languages, non-dominant groups

Contradictory to the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People

States Indigenous people have the right to determine their own identity. Reframing 'cultural load' places the load where it belongs; with the colonial project.

Colonial Load

The load placed knowingly and unknowingly on First Nations people. Biases, assumptions, expectations and entitlement

Cultural Responsibility

Cultural Responsibility is how community would like us to show up, and how we've been taught to show up for family, community and Country.

Indigenous Psychology & Mental Health

Recognition of historical colonialism is key to health interventions in a community.

Colonisation and Trauma

Trauma through: genocide, massacres, servitude, separation. Colonisation and Trauma leads to disconnection.

Racism: Individual, Institutional, and Cultural

Health Disparities exist and lead to increased rates of suicide.

Broadening and Diversifying Perspectives

Different models of health and wellbeing are valid. Collectivism, culturally appropriate and safe care.

The SEWB Principles

• Holistic
• Self – determination
• Cultural Understanding and Validation
• Experiences of Trauma and Loss
• Human Rights
• Racism, Stigma, Social Disadvantage
  *Centrality, Aboriginal Kinship, Strength &Resilience
  Great Streghts

SELWB Domains

• Connection to Spirit
• Connection to Body
• Connection to Country
• Connection to Mind
• Connection to Culture
  *Connection to family & kinship
  Community Self

Reconciliation