20-21

Agricultural Revolution: A period of increased agricultural productivity in the 18th century that laid the foundation for the Industrial Revolution.

James Watt: A Scottish inventor whose improvements to the steam engine made it a key power source during the Industrial Revolution.

Factory: A centralized location where goods were mass-produced using machinery and labor, central to industrial growth.

Crystal Palace: A vast glass-and-iron structure built in London for the 1851 Great Exhibition, showcasing industrial achievements.

Irish Potato Famine: A catastrophic failure of the potato crop in Ireland (1845–1851) that led to mass starvation and emigration.

Luddites: British workers in the early 19th century who destroyed machines they believed were threatening their jobs.

Chartism: A British working-class movement in the 1830s–40s calling for political reforms like universal male suffrage and parliamentary democracy.

Reformer: A person advocating for gradual social or political change to improve existing systems, often in response to industrial or political unrest.

Congress of Vienna: A 1815 diplomatic conference aimed at restoring pre-Napoleonic order and maintaining a balance of power in Europe.

Klemens von Metternich: The Austrian diplomat who led the Congress of Vienna and promoted conservative, anti-revolutionary policies across Europe.

Edmund Burke: A British philosopher who argued for tradition and gradual change, laying the foundations for conservative political thought.

Greek Revolution: An early 19th-century uprising in which Greece won independence from the Ottoman Empire, aided by European powers.

Nicholas I: The conservative tsar of Russia (1825–1855) who strengthened autocracy and suppressed revolutionary movements.

Liberalism: A political ideology advocating for individual rights, constitutional government, and limited state power.

Conservatism: A political philosophy favoring the preservation of traditional institutions and opposition to abrupt change.

Nationalism: A belief in the distinct identity and unity of a people based on common culture, language, and history, often seeking political independence.

Socialism: An ideology that seeks to reduce economic inequality by advocating collective or governmental control of the means of production.

Revolutions of 1830: A wave of uprisings across Europe sparked by dissatisfaction with conservative regimes and a desire for liberal reforms.

Revolutions of 1848: A series of widespread but ultimately unsuccessful revolts across Europe demanding national independence, liberal constitutions, and social reform.

Alexander Hamilton: An American statesman and founding father who advocated for a strong central government and industrial economy in the early United States.