Study Notes on Competition and Cooperation

COMPETITION AND COOPERATION

Today’s Main Points

  • Understand the difference between competition and cooperation and the benefits and detriments of each.

  • Describe the four stages of Martens’ view of competition.

  • Examine the research related to competition and cooperation.

  • Discuss why competition can be both good and bad.

  • Balancing competition and cooperation.

Competition Defined

  • Definition: A social process occurring when rewards are allocated based on how an individual's performance compares to others' during a task or event (Coakley, 1994).

  • Key Characteristics:

    • Rewards are limited to those outperforming others.

    • Competitive reward structures are practical in simple physical tasks of brief duration.

Cooperation Defined

  • Definition: A social process whereby performance is evaluated and rewarded based on the collective achievements of a group working together to reach a common goal (Coakley, 1994).

  • Key Characteristics:

    • Rewards are distributed equally among all group members.

    • Success is contingent upon the collective achievement of all participants.

    • Cooperative reward structures are effective for complex tasks involving difficult problems.

Martens’ (1975) Stages of the Competitive Process

  • Overview: Martens demonstrated how competition can be enhanced or diminished during various stages and emphasized the importance of social influences in structuring activities.

Stage 1: Objective Competitive Situation

  • A scenario where performance is compared against a standard of excellence in the presence of at least one aware observer.

Stage 2: Subjective Competitive Situation

  • Refers to how an individual perceives, accepts, and appraises the objective competitive situation.

    • Influenced by personality traits such as competitiveness.

    • Involves the use of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) developed by Gill & Deeter (1988).

    • Three components of the SOQ:

      • Competitiveness Orientation: General enjoyment of competition and striving for success.

      • Win Orientation: Focuses on interpersonal comparisons and the importance of winning.

      • Goal Orientation: Involves personal performance standards and self-set goals.

Stage 3: Response

  • This stage gauges whether individuals approach or avoid the competitive situation.

    • Occurs at behavioral, physiological, and psychological levels (both internal and external).

Stage 4: Consequences

  • Reflects whether individuals approach or avoid a situation based on the outcomes perceived as positive (success) or negative (failure).

    • Evaluations hinge on perceptions of these consequences.

Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ)

  • Competitive Items:

    • Examples include enjoyment of competition and statements like "I am a competitive person" and "I enjoy competing against others."

  • Win Orientation Items:

    • Focus on the importance of winning such as "Winning is important" and "I hate to lose."

  • Goal Orientation Items:

    • Represent the emphasis on personal standards, illustrated by statements like "I set goals for myself when I compete" and "Performing to the best of my ability is very important to me."

SOQ Results

  • Athletes generally have higher scores than non-athletes across all three subscales of the SOQ, particularly in competitiveness.

  • Athletes tend to prioritize improving personal performance (goal orientation) more than winning (win orientation).

  • Individuals may excel in multiple orientations.

  • Higher competitiveness correlates with better performance in coactive tasks.

  • Males show greater competitive and win orientations than females, while females demonstrate higher goal orientation.

Research Findings: Competition and Cooperation

  • Johnson and Johnson (1985): Analyzed 122 studies regarding the effects of competition and cooperation on performance.

    • Out of 65 studies, cooperation yielded higher achievements/performance (only 8 yielded the opposite results).

    • 108 studies showed cooperation led to superior achievements compared to independent or individualistic work (6 showed otherwise).

  • Triplett’s Cyclists (1898): Noted that cyclists performed faster in competition than when racing alone against the clock, indicating potential performance enhancement through face-to-face competition.

  • Deutsch’s Puzzles (1949): Conducted an experiment rewarding students based on individual performance versus group efforts in puzzle solving.

    • Results revealed competition led to self-centeredness, poor communication, group conflict, and distrust among students; cooperation fostered open communication, shared information, and stronger friendships, leading to solving more puzzles effectively.

Further Research Findings

  • Cooke et al., (2011): Established that competitive groups performed better than individualistic approaches.

  • Stuntz and Garwood (2012): Found cooperative instructions led to superior performance compared to competitive or individualistic instructions.

Pat Summitt’s Definite Dozen

  • Principles for Success:

    • Respect yourself and others.

    • Take full responsibility.

    • Develop and demonstrate loyalty.

    • Learn to be a great communicator.

    • Discipline yourself so no one else has to.

    • Make hard work your passion.

    • Don’t just work hard, work smart.

    • Put the team before yourself.

    • Make winning an attitude.

    • Be a competitor.

    • Change is a must.

    • Handle success like you handle failure.

Competition and Aggression

  • Relationship: Competition can lead to hostility and aggression among teams.

    • Example: "They call me assassin" – Jack Tatum (1980).

    • Example: New Orleans Saints Bounty (2012).

    • Incident: Two Texas High School Football Players suspended for tackling a referee (2015).

  • Conclusion: Whether competition incites aggression or promotes cooperation hinges on the social environment and athletes' perceptions of competition.

    • The evolution of sportsmanship/sportspersonship is evident in instances such as Pink Out UGA (2019) and compassionate acts seen in events like the 2021 Iowa HS player's demonstration of sportsmanship.

Is Competition Good or Bad?

  • Nature of Competition: Competition is neither inherently good nor inherently bad; it is a neutral process where the environmental context significantly influences its outcomes.

Competition and Cooperation as Complementary Concepts

  • Interconnectedness of Competition and Cooperation: These are not opposing forces but rather complementary concepts.

  • Teaching Dynamics: The dynamics through which competition and cooperation enhance one another should be emphasized in learning environments.

  • Attributes of High Performers: Top performers effectively blend competition and cooperation strategies, showcasing traits including:

    • Sense of mission,

    • Strong work ethic,

    • Resourcefulness,

    • Strong preparation ethics,

    • A love for challenge and change,

    • Great teamwork.

Enhancing Cooperation: General Principles of Cooperative Games

  • Guidelines:

    • Maximize participation in activities.

    • Optimize opportunities to learn sport and movement skills.

    • Avoid keeping score to foster cooperation.

    • Ensure ample opportunities for success.

    • Provide positive feedback to participants.

    • Encourage players to experience various positions in games.

Guidelines for Balancing Competition and Cooperation

  • Teaching and Coaching Integration: Blend competition with cooperation while teaching physical skills.

  • Individualized Instruction: Tailor instruction to accommodate individual needs.

  • Structuring Games: Design children's games to include aspects of both competition and cooperation.

  • Reducing Rivalry: When competition incites intense rivalry, utilize superordinate goals to unite groups.

  • Positive Feedback: Always provide positive reinforcement and encouragement to students and athletes regardless of competitive outcomes.

  • Promote Cooperation: Foster an atmosphere of trust and open communication to emphasize cooperation.

  • Skill Learning and Practice Opportunities: Ensure learning of sport skills is accompanied by practice opportunities within competitive settings.