7.4

Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution: Marshall's ruling established the Supreme Court's authority to review congressional legislation and interpret the Constitution, setting a precedent for judicial review.
Judicial Review: The power held by courts to decide the constitutionality of legislative acts, exemplified in Marshall's statement: "It is emphatically the province and duty of the judicial department to say what the law is."

Despite constitutional setbacks, Jefferson and the Republicans worked to reverse Federalist policies:
- Alien and Sedition Acts: Expired in 1801, declared unconstitutional, not extended by Congress.
- Naturalization Act: Amended to restore the waiting period for resident aliens from fourteen to five years.
- Reduction of Federal Government Size: Jefferson critiqued Federalists for their expansionist policies, leading to an overall decrease in government size, including the elimination of internal taxes, and reductions in the army size to alleviate fears of a military coup.
- Judiciary Act of 1801: Repealed, resulting in the ouster of forty Federalist appointees (midnight judges). Jefferson managed to remove 69 Federalists throughout his presidency.

Secretary of Treasury: Appointed Albert Gallatin, a fiscal conservative, who labeled national debt as “an evil of the first magnitude.”
Debt Reduction Strategy: Gallatin effectively reduced the national debt from $83$ million in 1801 to $45$ million by 1812 through limiting expenditures and utilizing customs revenue to redeem government bonds.

Jefferson's advocacy for western settlement was prominent in his writings, notably in "Notes on the State of Virginia" (1785), and his support of various legislative measures aimed at facilitating land acquisition.
Land Price Reduction: Land prices were set at $2$ per acre by a Federalist Congress in 1796; under Republican influence, laws were enacted during the 1830s that reduced prices to $1.25$ per acre and eased terms for land acquisition, eventually leading to the Homestead Act of 1862.

Background: In 1801, Napoleon Bonaparte's seizure of power in France and the reestablishment of its empire in America led to fears about land accessibility for America.
Diplomatic Decisions: Jefferson initially sought to secure New Orleans and the Mississippi River from Spanish control.
Negotiation for Territory: Jefferson sent Robert Livingston and James Monroe to negotiate with France; the French offered all of Louisiana for $15$ million, doubling the size of the U.S.
- Constitutional Questions: This purchase forced Jefferson to reconsider his strict interpretation of the Constitution, pragmatically accepting a loose interpretation and utilizing treaty-making powers to acquire new territory.

Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh: Leaders mobilizing Indigenous resistance against American expansion, advocating for a return to traditional ways among Native tribes that were less affected by westward expansion.
Prophetstown: Tenskwatawa’s holy village in Indiana, where Native Americans gathered for support against American encroachers.

Battle of Tippecanoe: In November 1811, while Tecumseh sought support from southern tribes, Governor William Henry Harrison attacked Prophetstown, resulting in heavy casualties for both sides.

Economic Tensions: The primary catalyst for the war included British violations of American commercial rights, particularly regarding impressment and trade restrictions.
Division Among Political Parties: Federalists opposed the war, primarily from New England and Middle Atlantic states, whereas southern and western supporters pushed Madison for war, leading to a divided Congress. The declaration of war was approved in June 1812.
Military Struggles: Early military failures included a retreat at Detroit, but successes later occurred with the burning of York (Toronto) and victories in Lake Erie and the Thames, where Tecumseh was killed.

Embargo Act of 1807: Aimed to protect American interests but severely harmed the economy by prohibiting foreign trade, leading to a decline in GDP of 5 ext{%}, and a drastic reduction in exports from $108$ million (1806) to $22$ million (1808).
Reactions to the Embargo: Widespread discontent led to Madison’s presidency where the Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 replaced the embargo with less restrictive measures but ultimately failed to restore American commerce.

Goals: Commissioned by Jefferson to report on the physical features, resources, and Native populations of the newly acquired territories. They set out from St. Louis in 1804 and traveled extensively through the region, encountering various Indigenous tribes and documenting their findings.
Socio-Political Context: Their journey was crucial in defining and understanding the U.S. territories post-Louisiana Purchase, forecasting significant population and agricultural potential in those lands.

Mapped Territories: The expedition yielded maps of the immense new territories acquired, which encouraged western expansion and influenced the notion of Manifest Destiny in future American ideology.

Federalist Concern Over Expansion: The Louisiana acquisition incited fears among Federalists about losing power and fostering sectional divides, leading to discussions of secession among some groups, notably involving Aaron Burr’s conspiracies.
Cultural Interactions: Jefferson's administration faced substantial challenges regarding Indigenous peoples and foreign influences as America expanded westward, increasingly complicating the relationship between settlers and Native Americans, as conflicts over land became more pronounced.