Super power rivalry and tensions

Sino-Soviet:

  • Background:

    • China and Russia had experienced a troubled history, mainly due to their shared 4500 mile border; during Tsarist Russia there was much tensions along the border

    • In the 19th century China lost territories to Russia.

    • China was impressed and grateful when the new Bolshevik regime, in what was now known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, suggested that it would give up all claims to the former Tsarist empire outside Russia. However, a year later, the Bolsheviks seized Outer Mongolia; and at the end of World War Two, the Soviets stripped $2 billion of equipment and machinery from Manchuria.

  • Stalin and Mao (Diplomatic [tacit] alliance)

    • Chinese Civil war:  Stalin failed to give support to the CCP during the war because of possible competition.

    • Stalin’s attitude to Mao: Stalin feared Mao because Mao might expand the Cold War and establish a version of communism to complete with the USSR.

    • Sino-Soviet Treaty of Alliance: The Chinese thought it as an insult because it allowed the USSR to exploit China and not share technology and Stalin did not want to sign it.

    • Korean war: The USSR enabled the war to begin but gave North Korea little consistent support. China entered the war and saved North Korea from conquest by UN forces.

  • Mao and Khrushchev (Strained and split, China showed another way to do communism)

    • New policy of Khrushchev: Krushchev adopted peaceful coexistence with capitalism. He thought that capitalism will fail anyhow eventually. Mao thought this a risk, perhaps communist countries are ruined first. Also, Krushchev was against the Stalinist Totalitarian governance. This is what Mao emulated to have unit and a following. Khrushchev’s new policies of Peaceful Coexistence after the Cuban Missile Crisis rejected Mao’s policies.

    • Mao’s response to Khrushchev: That he would do Marxism differently, to be led through agriculture and peasants, not by party leaders and industry.

    • Great Leap Forward:A cultural revolution to destroy traditional culture and communize the population so that the “masses” could support communism, to escape dependency on the USSR, and it was meant to support industrialization after the rural revolution. A “turning point” that led to Khrushchev and Mao’s relationship to split

  • Mao and Brezhnev

    • Soviet rejection of Mao’s cultural revolution: The USSR opposed the Chinese cultural revolution because Brezhnev said it was fanatical and Stalinistic and that progress required a slower approach including the development of industry – not the rapid destruction of culture (tradition) while implementing communism. Also, that communism cannot be done only from the agrarian sector.

    • Mao’s reaction to “Prague Spring“ in Czechoslovakia: Mao condemned the Brezhnev Doctrine and its use of violence in Prague as it was not behaving in a “true socialist“ manner and he was also worried that the Soviet military and the Brezhnev Doctrine could be turned against China.

    • Sino-Soviet border war of 1969: The war had begun since the PRC denounced the Soviet Union as imperialist and had violated their borders numerous times. The accusations then escalated into fighting in 1969, almost at the verge of an all-out nuclear war. This intensified USSR and the PRC’s rivalry. A treaty was eventually signed in 1991; the border did not change and China did not win the land that they claimed that Russia had stolen in the 19th century.

    • Sino-Soviet clashes over Indochina: China was interested on Indochina due to its strategic geographical position, since China bordered Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. The PRC had been involved in peace talks to end the problems in Indochina; however, the US did not want the PRC there and refused to acknowledge the PRC representative

      • Vietnam: The PRC was not directly involved in the Vietnam War, but gave moral and diplomatic support to Ho Chi Minh and attacked US involvement in the war. Then there was a struggle between the PRC and USSR to win the Vietnamese Communists on their side. China refused to allow the Soviet Union to use Chinese airports for Soviet airlifts to Vietnam and accused the USSR of being in an alliance with USA; nevertheless, USSR’s ideology won as they kept a steady supply of aid and arms.

      • Cambodia & Vietnam: Chinese attempted to form closer ties with Cambodia as it became communist under Pol Pot; his regime was modeled on “Maoism“; however, his brutality exceeded that of Cultural Revolution of Mao. Subsequently, USSR and Vietnam signed a military alliance; after conflicts over borders, Vietnam invaded Cambodia with the intention of overthrowing Pol Pot. China defended Pol Pot and argued that Vietnam’s invasion of Cambodia was “Soviet expansionism“; China invaded Vietnam in 1979. China wanted ti draw Vietnamese and Soviet forces out of Cambodia, which made USSR respond with an increase in support for the Vietnamese. Vietnam came out victorious, despite China’s proclaimed victory and the huge amount of casualties.

    • Sino-Soviet rapprochement: Sino-Soviet relations relaxed due to Mao’s death, the overthrow of a Chinese anti-Soviet gang, Deng Xiaoping’s more Soviet and West tolerant regime, and Brezhnev’s death,

Sino-American

Context and background: 

  • During the Second World War the USA had supported the Guomindang Party against Japan.  After the Japanese surrender the Chinese Communist Party and the Guomindang fought for control.  However, despite US support the Guomindang (Nationalists) led by Chiang Kai-Chek were defeated, even though the CCP did not get so much assistance from the USSR.

  • In 1949 the CCP had control of China, led by Mao Zedong, and the US refused to recognize mainland China (Peoples Republic of China – PRC) and instead recognized only Taiwan (ruled by Chiang Kai-Chek) which was called the Republic of China. Taiwan was given China’s seat in the UN, despite Soviet protests which were the cause of their absence in 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea leading to the US being able to use the UN to help South Korea as the USSR was not there to veto this as they were protesting Taiwan having China’s seat.

  • As well as China being communist, the US only recognizing Taiwan and Korea being contested, Tibet was another source of tension.  In 1950 the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) invaded Tibet.  China considered this domestic policy claiming that Tibet was part of China while many nations argued that Tibet was not really part of China even though it lacked nation state status as it had no central government etc…

  • Regarding the containment of China the US imposed a trade embargo, obstructed the PRC entry into the UNO, provided military aid to Taiwan, developed economic relations in East Asia, established a regional military bloc – SEATO –South East Asian Treaty Organisation and  made special bi-lateral military relations and alliances with a few new nations in the region – Philippines, S. Vietnam, Indonesia etc… which were added to the commitments with S. Korea, Japan and Taiwan.

  • Relations

    • Tibet: China invaded and annexed Tibet to the PRC, as Mao saw this as a part of their consolidation of the CCP’s control in the mainland and the reunification of former Chinese territories. The US condemned the PRC as expansionists and the horrific brutality in which the Tibetans were suppressed.

    • Korean War: It led to open conflict between USA and PRC. USA pledged to protect Taiwan after the war. Mao condemned American actions for fighting against North Korea while the US blamed China for supporting North Korea, who started the conflict.

    • China’s policy regarding Taiwan: USA was protecting Taiwan from being annexed to the PRC, but then allowed China to get Taiwan’s seat in the UN. The US “protected“ Taiwan from communism by supporting its anti- communist government.

    • Taiwan was protected by the USA like South Vietnam from China and “protected“ from communism. China claimed that in each case this was imperialism (USA controlling other countries), the US claimed it was defending their independence.

    • The Bandung Conference was held in response to the USA’s role insetting up the SEATO, an anti-communist alliance. 29 Asian and African states asserted their neutrality towards imperialistic policies; China stated that these policies were a danger to world peace. This helped to show that China could promote the non-aligned movement of neutral countries.

    • The US considered the Cultural Revolution as a “demonstration of the out-of-control fanatism” and that it could threaten the stability of Asia and turn to communism.

  • Détente:

    • USA wanted detente due to the situation in Vietnam that caused the US to reconsider its containment strategy. Moreover, Nixon wanted to “make history“, in doing so he put pressure on the Soviet-American attempts at detente. In addition, public support in the US for more constructive strategies rose after the Vietnam War, and, the PRC had developed ICBM capability, that made the US to view having no contact with China more dangerous.

      • The US gained a truce with the PRC in Vietnam, and US’s new policy towards China resulted in pressure on the USSR to maintain its detente with USA.

    • China wanted detent because it saw the USSR as its main rival, so it wanted to reduce tensions with the US. In addition, the PRC was worried bout a resurgent Japan and gaining concessions on key foreign policy issues would help them to limit Japan’s power. Furthermore, Mao argued that the detente would be temporary and would remain vigilant on the US imperialism and aggression.

      • China obtained a UN membership which gave them the power of the veto in the UN Security Council, establishing full diplomatic relations with the US that simultaneously halted arms sales to Taiwan, and, signing a friendship treaty, especially through economic ties.

US-Soviet

  • After 1945 the USA had a monopoly on atomic weapons.  As the USSR tried to catch up a race began in which each country tried to catch up with each other. Some of the turning points were:

    • The USSR exploded its own atom-bomb

    • The USA exploded an H-bomb (nuclear weapon). 

    • The USSR exploded its own H-bomb. 

    • By this time both sides could launch nuclear attacks from air-forces and surface ships and from land based launching sites.

    • The USSR launched a satellite bringing the arms race into orbit and introducing the concept of missiles launching bombs, making bombers (air forces) less relevant.  ICBM’s (Intercontinental ballistic missiles) were introduced which gave the USSR equality as it did not have air force bases surrounding the USA. 

    • The USA launched a missile from a submarine bringing nuclear war through the world’s oceans, underwater.

    • The concept of Mutually Assured Destruction prevailed (MAD) in which neither side could expect to win, even if it successfully started the war.  The CND (Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament) emerged in the 1960’s to counter this MAD policy.

  • Détente:

    • A halt to the arms race, non interference in each other’s affairs, summit meetings, cultural exchange to be built – art, sport, science, reproduction parties etc…

    • It happened because of the heavy costs of the arms and space race, the dangers of war and because of internal opposition to the possibility of using nuclear weapons.

  • There were other reasons: 

    • The USA wanted to keep the USSR and China apart and to buy time while reflecting upon the loss in Vietnam – failure of containment. 

    • The USSR wanted to spend less on the military and more on economic and social investments and did not want the US feeling insecure enough to make an alliance with China. 

    • China wanted more trade with the USA and to avoid an alliance with either side, while playing them against each other.

    • Ironically, each side was worried about the other getting close to China, each side understanding that for itself, a real alliance with China was impossible.  China used this to feign friendship with both the USA and the USSR to make them try harder to gain her alliance, but never giving it.

  • In the USA détente was supported by Nixon and Carter (1968-80) and in the USSR by Brezhnev (1964-82).  In China Mao practiced Détente after the Great Leap Forward had failed in the 1960’s. 

  • Limitations of Détente: 

    • Arms race continued and there were issues with verification about agreements.

    • Wars still happened.  Vietnam continued.  The USSR supported Egypt and the USA Israel in the Middle East etc…

    • Human rights violations were common under Soviet and American hegemony; for example in Chile, Nicaragua, Czechoslovakia, Poland etc…

    • In 1980 Reagan came to power in the USA with the aim of abandoning Détente and MAD (he saw them as compromising and dangerous) as part of ending and winning the Cold War, but he did intend to do this peacefully. Reagean didn’t compromise with content. Reagan regarded the soviet state as evil, but not the people