Unification of Italy and Germany, The Case of Britain, Visualizing the Nation, Nationalism and Imperialism

Italy Unified

Like Germany, Italy also experienced political fragmentation with Italians scattered across dynastic states and the Habsburg Empire. In the mid-19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, with only Sardinia-Piedmont ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the center under the Pope, and the south under Spanish Bourbon kings. The Italian language lacked a common form, marked by regional variations.

Giuseppe Mazzini's Role

During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini aimed to unify Italy into a republic and formed the secret society Young Italy. However, revolutionary uprisings in 1831 and 1848 failed.

Sardinia-Piedmont's Leadership

Leadership in unifying Italy then shifted to Sardinia-Piedmont under King Victor Emmanuel II. The ruling elites saw a unified Italy as a means for economic development and political dominance.

Chief Minister Cavour

Chief Minister Cavour, who led the unification movement, was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. He spoke French better than Italian and tactfully allied with France to defeat Austrian forces in 1859. Alongside regular troops, armed volunteers led by Giuseppe Garibaldi also participated.

Giuseppe Garibaldi and Southern Italy

In 1860, Garibaldi's forces marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, gaining support from local peasants to expel the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

Limited Awareness Among the Population

However, a significant portion of the Italian population, particularly the illiterate peasant masses, were unaware of liberal-nationalist ideology. These peasants, who supported Garibaldi, were largely ignorant about the concept of 'Italia'.

The Strange Case of Britain

Some scholars argue that Great Britain serves as a model for the nation-state. The formation of the British nation-state was a gradual process, not a sudden revolution.

Ethnic Identities

Before the 18th century, the inhabitants of the British Isles primarily identified with their ethnic groups, such as English, Welsh, Scottish, or Irish, each with unique cultural and political traditions.

English Influence

As England grew in wealth and power, it extended its influence over the other nations in the British Isles. The English Parliament, having gained power from the monarchy in 1688, became the instrument for forging a nation-state with England at its center.

The Act of Union (1707)

The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland formed the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain,' effectively allowing England to exert its influence over Scotland. The British Parliament became dominated by English members.

Suppression of Scottish Culture

The growth of British identity led to the suppression of Scotland's culture and political institutions. Catholic clans in the Scottish Highlands faced repression for asserting their independence and were forbidden to speak Gaelic or wear national dress. Many were forcibly displaced.

Ireland's Fate

Ireland experienced a similar fate, divided between Catholics and Protestants. The English supported the Protestants in dominating the largely Catholic country. Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed, and after a failed revolt in 1798, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.

Propagation of English Culture

A new 'British nation' was forged through the promotion of a dominant English culture. Symbols like the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), and the English language were actively promoted, while the older nations became subordinate partners.

Visualising the Nation

In the 18th and 19th centuries, artists sought to represent nations by personifying them as female figures, giving a concrete form to the abstract idea of a nation. This female form did not represent a specific woman but served as an allegory of the nation.

Female Allegories

During the French Revolution, female allegories represented ideas like Liberty, Justice, and the Republic, each with specific objects or symbols. Liberty was often symbolized by the red cap or broken chain, while Justice was a blindfolded woman with weighing scales.

Marianne and Germania

Similarly, artists created female allegories to represent nations in the 19th century. In France, Marianne, with characteristics drawn from Liberty and the Republic, became a symbol of a people’s nation. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares, and her image appeared on coins and stamps. Germania became the allegory of the German nation, wearing a crown of oak leaves symbolizing heroism.

The symbols associated with Germania, such as broken chains representing being freed, a breastplate with an eagle symbolizing the German empire's strength, a crown of oak leaves representing heroism, a sword representing readiness to fight, an olive branch around the sword representing willingness to make peace, the black, red, and gold tricolour representing the flag of liberal-nationalists in 1848, and rays of the rising sun representing the beginning of a new era, all carry symbolic meanings related to German nationalism and aspirations.

Nationalism and Imperialism

By the late 19th century, nationalism shifted from idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment to a narrow creed. Nationalist groups became intolerant and prone to war. European powers manipulated nationalist aspirations to further their imperialist goals.

The Balkans

The Balkans became a major source of nationalist tension after 1871, characterized by ethnic diversity and control by the Ottoman Empire. The spread of romantic nationalism and the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made the region volatile.

Independence Movements

European subject nationalities broke away from Ottoman control, basing their claims on nationality and historical independence. Balkan states competed for territory, leading to intense conflict and big power rivalry among Russia, Germany, England, and Austro-Hungary.

First World War

These rivalries led to wars in the region and ultimately to the First World War.

Anti-Imperial Movements

Nationalism, aligned with imperialism, led Europe to disaster in 1914. However, many countries colonized by European powers in the 19th century began to oppose imperial domination. Anti-imperial movements sought to form independent nation-states inspired by national unity. While European ideas of nationalism were not replicated, the concept of organizing societies into nation-states became widely accepted.