AP Psychology Exam Review Notes

Hearing

  • Basilar Membrane:
    • The basilar membrane runs through the middle of the cochlea.
  • Cilia:
    • Cilia are small, hair-like structures that stick up off the basilar membrane.
    • As sound waves move through the cochlea, the cilia move, similar to hay in a field being blown by the wind.
  • Place Theory:
    • Explains how we recognize different pitches based on where the cilia are activated along the basilar membrane.
    • Different locations on the cilia respond to different frequencies (e.g., 10,000 Hz, 1,000 Hz, 5,000 Hz).
  • Transduction:
    • The process of converting mechanical energy (like sound waves) into a neural impulse.
    • Occurs in the cochlea, specifically within the cilia.

Vestibular Sense

  • Semicircular Canals:
    • Filled with fluid and help us sense the direction our head is moving.
    • Detect movement because the fluid inside moves around when we turn or tilt our head, while the canals themselves remain rigid.
    • Motion sickness occurs when there's a conflict between what the eyes see and what the semicircular canals sense (e.g., reading in a car).
    • The fluid's movement is influenced by gravity, which helps us maintain our balance.

Vision

  • Eye Anatomy:
    • Ear canal: The opening to the ear.
    • Eardrum: Responds to sound waves.
    • Hammer, anvil, and stapes: Three smallest bones in the human body that transmit vibrations.
    • Oval window: The front of the cochlea.
    • Iris:
      • The colored part of the eye. It is a muscle.
      • Expands and contracts to control the amount of light entering the eye through the pupil.
    • Pupil:
      • The black opening in the center of the eye.
      • Appears black because there is no light getting in the back of it.
    • Lens:
      • Located right in front of the iris.
      • Bends to allow us to see objects clearly at different distances.
    • Cornea:
      • The clear, outermost part of the eye.
      • Protects the eye, like a windshield in a car.
    • Sclera:
      • The outer shell that provides structure to the eyeball.
    • Vitreous Fluid:
      • The fluid inside the eyeball.
    • Retina:
      • Covers the entire interior surface of the eye.
      • Contains rods and cones.
  • Rods:
    • More abundant than cones.
    • Located throughout the retina.
    • Responsible for black and white vision.
    • Good at picking up movement.
    • Enable night vision.
  • Cones:
    • Concentrated in the fovea (center of vision).
    • Responsible for color vision and clear vision.
    • Three types of cones: red, blue, and yellow.
  • Fovea:
    • The central point behind the pupil.
    • The only spot where cones exist.
  • Peripheral Vision:
    • Vision outside of the direct line of sight.
    • Rods, but not cones, detect peripheral vision; therefore, peripheral vision is mostly black and white and good at picking up movement.

Memory

  • Explicit (Declarative) Memory:
    • Memories that can be consciously recalled.
    • Two types:
      • Semantic Memory: Facts and general knowledge (e.g., someone's name).
      • Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and events (e.g., a fifth birthday).
  • Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory:
    • Memories that are not consciously recalled.
    • Procedural Memory:
      • A type of implicit memory for skills and habits (e.g., walking, riding a bike, driving a car).
      • Difficult to explain how to perform these tasks.

The Limbic System

  • The limbic system is an interior part of the brain located below the cerebral cortex.
  • Hippocampus:
    • Responsible for forming new memories.
    • Retrieves memories and puts new memories where they need to go.
  • Amygdala:
    • Responsible for emotions, especially fear and anger.
  • Thalamus:
    • Acts as a sensory control center.
    • All senses except smell pass through the thalamus.
  • Hypothalamus:
    • In some models it is included in the limbic system.
    • Responsible for maintaining homeostasis (temperature, thirst, hunger, fornication, and fight or flight).

Brain Structure

  • Cerebral Cortex:
    • It is the newest, most advanced part of the brain. The bark, the sulci gyri that are on the outside.
    • Allows for verbal speech through Broca's area and Wernicke's area.
  • Brain Stem:
    • Includes the spinal cord, pons, medulla, and reticular formation.

Developmental Stages

  • Nature vs. Nurture:
    • Debate over the roles of genetics (nature) and environmental influences (nurture) in development.
  • Continuity vs. Stages:
    • Debate over whether development is a gradual, continuous process or occurs in distinct stages.
  • Maturation:
    • The physical and mental progression of the body as it ages.
    • Certain physical milestones cannot be achieved until the body has matured enough.
  • Developmental Milestones:
    • Certain cognitive and physical abilities must develop before others can occur.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

  • Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years):
    • Infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.
    • Key achievement: object permanence (understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight).
  • Preoperational Stage (2-6 years):
    • Characterized by language development and symbolic thinking.
    • Children in this stage lack the concept of conservation (understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance).
  • Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years):
    • Children develop logical thinking about concrete events.
    • Achieve conservation and reversibility (understanding that actions can be reversed).
  • Formal Operational Stage (12+ years):
    • Adolescents develop abstract and hypothetical thinking.
    • Metacognition (thinking about thinking) emerges.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

  • Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy):
    • Infants learn whether the environment is safe and reliable.
  • Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood):
    • Toddlers learn to do things on their own or doubt their abilities.
  • Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool):
    • Children start to initiate activities and assert control or feel guilty for their efforts.
  • Industry vs. Inferiority (Elementary School):
    • Children gain a sense of competence and achievement or feel inferior.
  • Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence):
    • Adolescents form a sense of identity or become confused about their role in life.
  • Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood):
    • Young adults seek intimate relationships or experience isolation.
  • Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood):
    • Middle-aged adults contribute to the world or feel a lack of purpose.
  • Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood):
    • Older adults reflect on their lives and feel a sense of fulfillment or despair.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

  • Involves stages of moral reasoning and distinguishing between good and bad.