Gender Socialisation, Parental Factors and Racism in Education

1970-1980s Research Focus: Gender in education centered on girl underachievement.
Fiona Norman et al. (1988): Gender socialization begins early, influenced by the types of toys children receive.
Sue Sharpe (1976):
- Research with working-class girls in London found their primary concerns were love, marriage, husbands, children, jobs, and careers.
- Later research showed a shift in priorities, with jobs and careers becoming their main focus.
Tina Rampino (2015): Links boys' toys to spatial skills development, potentially making them better at math.
Girls' educational aspirations can be shaped by playing with dolls.

Gender stereotypes are oversimplified beliefs about men and women.
Toys:
- Reflect stereotypes through marketing (dolls, makeup kits for girls; construction kits, action figures for boys).
- Reinforce traditional gender roles (nurturing for girls, active/aggressive for boys).
Parental Influence:
- Unconsciously steer children toward gender-specific toys.
- Praise boys for strength, girls for beauty or caring.
Impact on Skill Development:
- Girls may miss out on spatial and problem-solving skills.
- Boys may not develop social or nurturing skills.
Long-term Effects:
- Influence career choices and personal development.
- Reinforce gender inequality in STEM and caregiving professions.
Gender Socialisation:
- Process through which individuals learn cultural expectations and norms associated with their gender from an early age.
- Shapes attitudes, behaviors, and educational outcomes.
- Influences how students perceive themselves, interact, and choose subjects.

Toys and Play: Crucial in gender socialisation; children are encouraged to play with gender-appropriate toys.
Cultural Influence: Toy choices reflect and reinforce cultural expectations, shaping skills, interests, and subject/career aspirations.
Agents of Socialisation: Family, school, peers, and media guide children toward gender-appropriate play, embedding gender norms.
Subject Choices: Remain gendered due to stereotypes and expectations; science/technology seen as masculine, arts/humanities as feminine.
Reinforcement: Teachers and parents encourage students to pursue subjects seen as ‘normal’ for their gender, reinforcing traditional roles.

Aspects of a student’s home life and family background that impact education (attitudes, behavior, expectations).
Parental Expectations:
- Some ethnic minority families (e.g., Chinese, Indian) have high expectations, viewing education as key to success.
- Example: Chinese families encourage hard study and aiming for top grades.
- Some working-class Black Caribbean families may face lower expectations or less trust in the education system due to experiences of racism or exclusion.
Parental Support:
- Levels of support differ across ethnic groups.
- Example: Indian and Pakistani families may be very involved in children's education, helping with homework and attending meetings, boosting performance.
- Some groups where parents work long hours or face language barriers (e.g., Bangladeshi families) may have less visible support despite valuing education.

Refers to the knowledge, language, skills, and habits that help children succeed in school.
Some ethnic minority groups may have less cultural capital that matches school expectations.
Examples:
- White middle-class student exposed to museums, classical music, academic vocabulary at home, which aligns with school values.
- Working-class Black Caribbean or Bangladeshi student might have different forms of culture not valued.
- Examples: informal speech styles, different cultural references, disadvantaging them.
- Teachers may misinterpret students’ behavior or language as disrespectful or lacking ability.
Cultural Capital (Pierre Bourdieu):
- Non-financial social assets acquired through social class that aid success, especially in education and employment.
- Embodied Cultural Capital: Knowledge, skills, language, manners, and ways of thinking learned over time (usually from family).
- Objectified Cultural Capital: Physical objects with cultural value (books, art, musical instruments).
- Institutionalized Cultural Capital: Educational qualifications or credentials (degree or diploma).

Cultural capital helps explain why children from middle and upper-class families often do better in school.
These children learn how to behave, speak, and think in ways that match what schools value.
Working-class children might not have the same cultural resources, even if they are just as intelligent.
Cultural Explanation (Ethnicity and Educational Attainment):
- Differences in culture, values, and family life between ethnic groups can explain differences in educational outcomes.

Parental Factors: Expectations, involvement, and support vary across ethnic groups, influencing student performance.
Cultural Capital: Having the right knowledge and skills that schools value; varies across ethnic groups depending on class and culture.
Examples: Indian and Chinese students often outperform the national average, while Black Caribbean and some white working-class students may underachieve.

Tony Sewell (1997):
- Studied a boys 11-16 school in Britain.
- Found Black Caribbean boys were singled out for punishment (32% of student population, 85% of exclusions).
Sewell's Teacher Groups:
- Supportive Teachers: Supported and guided students, established good relationships (approx. 10%).
- Irritated Teachers: Supportive but firmer; blamed boys’ street culture (approx. 60%).
- Antagonistic Teachers: Openly racist or objected to Black Caribbean street culture (approx. 30%).
Mirza (1992): A study of two secondary schools in London, England focused on 62 young Black students aged 15-19.
Mirza's Teacher Types:
- Overt Racist: Small minority avoided by girls.

The Christians: Tried to be ‘colour blind’.
The Crusaders: Anti-racist, tried to make lessons relevant.
Liberal Chauvinist: Well-meaning but underestimated students’ ability.
Black Teachers: Small group, showed no favouritism, liked and respected.
Girls in Mirza’s research were ambitious, hard-working, and determined to succeed, maintaining a cool distance from teachers.

Key aspect of racism in education is the Ethnocentric Curriculum.
Ethnocentrism:Belief that one's own ethnic group or culture is superior, prioritizing it to the exclusion of others.
Many teachers are committed to challenging inequalities, but racism can take the form of institutional racism.
Key Sociologists: David Gilborn and Deborah Youdell:
- Argue that concerns with league tables and marketization lead to sacrificing some students to raise attainment.
- 'Sacrificed’ students tended to be working-class and Black Caribbean heritage, seen as ‘less able’ and placed in lower sets.
- Higher sets had more experienced teachers, more teacher time, support, and effort.
- Lower sets were systematically neglected.
Key Sociologist: Paul Connolly (Primary Students):
- Study of a British multi-ethnic, inner-city primary school focused on South Asian 5 and 6 year olds and their teacher.
- Girls seen as models of good behavior; boys often praised for good work, while girls tended to be left alone.

Differences in educational attainment between ethnic groups exist in culturally diverse societies.
Income and material deprivation affect educational attainment differently across ethnic groups.
Ethnic group differences in attainment are affected by social class and gender.