Building Technology 1: Comprehensive Study Notes on Building Materials

Introduction and Overview

• Definition and Purpose: The study of building materials equips designers with tools for construction and guides the selection of appropriate materials to achieve stability, utility, and aesthetics. A structure functions as a whole, comprising structural systems, enclosures, finishing, and connections.
• Parts of a Structure:
  • Substructure: Components below the ground.
  • Superstructure: Components above the ground.
  • Structural Elements: Materials like concrete and steel that support gravity and lateral loads.
  • Enclosure/Envelope: The "skin," including walls (masonry, drywall), fenestrations (openings), and the roof.
  • Support/Protection: Hardware, glass, insulation, and waterproofing.
• Material Properties (Ching, 2014):
  1. Strength: Ability to withstand loads and resist deformation.
  2. Elasticity: Ability to deform under stress and return to original form; distinguishes ductile vs. brittle materials.
  3. Stiffness: Ability to resist stress; depends on structural shape.
  4. Durability: Density and hardness; resistance to abrasion and deterioration.
  5. Thermal Conductivity: Critical for materials in the building envelope.
  6. Moisture Absorption: Affects dimensional stability and detailing.
  7. Fire Resistance: Ability to withstand heat and non-toxicity.
  8. Acoustics/Lighting: Ability to absorb, reflect, or transmit light and sound.
  9. Appearance: Characteristics like color, texture, shape, and scale.
• Systems Design: Building elements function as an "assemblage of compatible components" (Fajardo, 1993). Example: A door system includes the leaf, jamb, wood profile, and hardware (hinges, locksets).
• Building Technology: Defined as the "knowledge of the technical processes and methods of assembling buildings" (Sullivan, 2014).

Concrete Technology

• Concrete Definition: An artificial stone-like material made by mixing cement, mineral aggregates, and water to cause setting and binding.
• History:
  • Ancient Romans: Discovered silica- and alumina-bearing minerals at Mount Vesuvius; invented concrete construction.
  • Joseph Aspdin (1824): Patented Portland cement, named after English Portland limestone.
  • Reinforced Concrete (1850s): Developed by J.L. Lambot (boats) and Thaddeus Hyatt (beams). Joseph Monier patented reinforced concrete flower pots in $1867$.
• Physical Characteristics:
  • Universal and low-cost.
  • Inherently strong in compression but weak in tension ($steel$ reinforcement required).
  • Weight: Approximately $150\,lbs/cu.ft$.
• Ingredients:
  • Cement (ASTM C150):
    • Type I: Normal: General construction.
    • Type II: Moderate: Sulfate resistant; for moderate heat build-up.
    • Type III: High Early Strength (HES): Cures in $3\text{ to }7$ days.
    • Type IV: Low Heat: For massive structures to prevent heat damage.
    • Type V: Sulfate Resistant: For severe sulfate action from soil.
  • Aggregates (ASTM C33): Represent $60\%\text{ to }80\%$ of volume.
    • Fine (Sand): Particle size smaller than $\frac{1}{4}\,in. \, (6.4\,mm)$.
    • Coarse (Gravel): Particle size larger than $\frac{1}{4}\,in. \, (6.4\,mm)$.
  • Water: Average ratio is $6\,gallons$ per $40\,kg$ cement bag. Excess water causes bleeding and laitance.
  • Admixtures:
    • Pozzolanic: Substitute for cement ($35\%$) in high-temp or seawater installs.
    • Accelerators: Speed up setting for early form removal.
    • Retarders: Delay setting in hot weather.
    • Air-Entraining Agent: Increases corrosion resistance.
• Curing Process:
  • Full Curing: Traditionally $28\,days$.
  • Hydration: Chemical reaction between cement and water forming crystals. Produces "heat of hydration" and "drying shrinkage."
• Evaluation Tests:
  • Slump Test (ASTM C143): Measures consistency. Cone is $12\,in.$ high ($4\,in.$ top diameter, $8\,in.$ bottom). Allowable slumps: Beams/Columns ($3\,in.$), Slabs/Walls ($2\,in.$), Arches ($4\,in.$).
  • Cylinder Test (ASTM C39): Measures compressive strength. Cylinder is $12\,in.$ high and $6\,in.$ in diameter.
• Concrete Products:
  • CHB (Concrete Hollow Block): Hollow load-bearing ($40\text{ to }50\,lbs$).
  • Cellular Concrete Blocks: Lightweight with high thermal/sound insulation; made with silica-rich sand, lime, and aluminum powder.
• Concrete Finishes:
  • Bton brut: Concrete left in a natural state reflecting formwork texture.
  • Bush-hammered: Coarse texture produced by power-driven serrated hammers.
  • Dry-shake: Colored finish sprinkled on fresh concrete.

Masonry Systems

• Definition: Building with units like stone, brick, or concrete block using mortar as a bonding agent.
• Mortar Classifications (ASTM Strength):
  • Type M: High-strength ($2,500\,psi$); for reinforced masonry below grade.
  • Type S: Medium-high-strength ($1,800\,psi$); for high lateral strength.
  • Type N: Medium-strength ($750\,psi$); for general use above grade.
  • Type O: Low-strength ($350\,psi$); for interior non-load bearing partitions.
  • Type K: Very-low-strength ($75\,psi$); for interior use where permitted.
• Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB):
  • Standard Parts: Face Shell, Web, Core/Cell.
  • Sizing: Load-bearing ($15\,cm\text{ to }20\,cm$ thickness); Non-load-bearing ($7.5\,cm\text{ to }10\,cm$ thickness).
• Bricks:
  • Processes: Soft-mud ($20\%\text{ to }30\%$ moisture), Stiff-mud ($12\%\text{ to }15\%$), Dry-press ($5\%\text{ to }7\%$).
  • Types: Common (general use), Facing (special color/texture: FBX, FBS, FBA).
  • Modular size: $102 \times 68 \times 203\,mm$.
• Natural Stone Classification:
  • Igneous: Granite (hard, quartz/feldspar), Obsidian (volcanic glass), Serpentine.
  • Sedimentary: Limestone (organic remains, Travertine, Dolomite), Sandstone (Bluestone, Brownstone).
  • Metamorphic: Marble (crystallized limestone), Slate (fine-grained, split along planes), Quartzite.
• Masonry Assembly Terms:
  • Wythe: Vertical section one unit thick.
  • Course: Continuous horizontal range of units.
  • Cavity Wall: Facing separated from backing by an air space and metal ties.
  • Weep Hole: Small opening to drain accumulated moisture.

Metals: Ferrous and Non-Ferrous

• Alloys: Mixtures of base metal and additional elements (e.g., Chromium for corrosion resistance, Manganese for hardening).
• Ferrous Metals (Iron-based):
  • Steel: Alloy of iron and carbon. Carbon increases strength/hardness but reduces ductility.
  • Stainless Steel: Added Chromium/Nickel for corrosion resistance.
  • Weathering Steel (HSLA): Forms a stable oxide layer (patina); requires no painting.
  • Galvanized Iron (GI): Iron coated with zinc via hot-dip process.
• Non-Ferrous Metals:
  • Aluminum: Lightweight, non-magnetic, corrosion-resistant. Finishes include "Anodizing" (electrochemical) and "Analok" (black-brown finish).
  • Copper: High conductivity; forms a green "patina" (insoluble salt layer).
  • Lead: Heavy, soft, malleable; used for flashing and spandrel panels.
• Metal Joinery:
  • Soldering: Joining metals with filler metal melting below $840\,^\circ F$.
  • Brazing: Joining with filler melting above $842\,^\circ F$.
  • Welding: Coalescence produced by melting base metals with filler.
  • Rivets: Mechanical fasteners with a head and buck tail; pop/blind rivets for one-sided access.
• Steel Reinforcement (ASTM A615):
  • Grades: Grade $40$, $60$, $75$, and $80$.
  • Standard Weights: $10\,mm$ ($0.617\,kg/m$), $12\,mm$ ($0.888\,kg/m$), $16\,mm$ ($1.578\,kg/m$), $20\,mm$ ($2.466\,kg/m$).

Wood and Carpentry

• Anatomy of a Tree Trunk:
  • Pith: Center.
  • Heartwood: Darker, central supporting pillar; composed of lignin-bound cellulose fiber.
  • Sapwood: Pipeline for water movement.
  • Cambium: Growing part producing new wood.
• Classifications:
  • Softwood: From conifers (Evergreen). Used for framing/bracing. Examples: Pine, Fir, Spruce, Molave, Yakal.
  • Hardwood: From deciduous trees. Used for furniture/paneling. Examples: Narra, Kamagong, Oak, Maple.
• Lumber Sizing (Hardwood): Measured in fractions ($4/4 = 1\,in.$, $5/4 = 1\text{-}\frac{1}{4}\,in.$, $8/4 = 2\,in.$).
• Defects:
  • Knots: Embedded branches.
  • Shakes: Lengthwise cracks (Heart, Wind/Cup, Star).
  • Warps: Distortion from shrinkage (Crook, Cup, Twist, Bow).
  • Rot: Dry rot (fungi in seasoned lumber), Wet rot (water saturation).
• Seasoning:
  • Air Seasoning: Natural drying; brings moisture to $10\%\text{ to }20\%$. Takes roughly $9\,months$ per inch of thickness.
  • Kiln Seasoning: Rapid heating; brings moisture to under $10\%$.
• Sawing Methods:
  • Plain/Livel Sawing: Most common, least wasteful; produces "cathedral" grain.
  • Quarter Sawing: Log cut into quarters; more stable, linear grain.
  • Rift Sawn: Most expensive and stable; significant waste.
• Carpentry Tools:
  • Saws: Rip saw (with grain), Cross-cut saw (across grain).
  • Planes: For smoothing wood.
  • Nails: Penny system ($d$). Common nails ($2d = 1\,in.$ up to $60d = 6\,in.$).
• Wood Joinery:
  • Butt Joint: Simple, toe-nailing.
  • Mortise and Tenon: Hole (mortise) receives projection (tenon); secured with wood pins.
  • Dovetail: Strong, aesthetically pleasing; resists pulling forces.

Building Boards and Finishing Systems

• Standard Size: Most boards come in $4\,ft \times 8\,ft \, (1.20 \times 2.40\,m)$.
• Types:
  • Plywood: Laminated veneers at right angles. Types: Marine ($\frac{1}{4}\text{ to }\frac{1}{2}\,in.$), Ordinary ($\frac{1}{4}\text{ to }\frac{3}{4}\,in.$).
  • Hardboard: Exploded cellulose fibers compressed under high pressure. Grades: Standard, Tempered (wear-resistant, exterior).
  • Medium Density Fiberboard (MDF): Wood fibers with Urea formaldehyde binder.
  • Gypsum Board: Gypsum core with paper face ($9\,mm$ or $12\,mm$ thickness).
  • Asbestos Cement Board: Fire/weather resistant; requires drilling.
  • Acoustic Boards: Fissured mineral wool tile or glass fiber tile for sound control.

Tiles and Tiling Systems

• Ceramic Tiles: Fired clay/feldspar/quartz.
  • Glazed: Non-porous, vitreous coating; easy to clean.
  • Unglazed: Soft, high absorbency, scratches easily.
  • Installation: Thinset (thin mortar) or Thickset (thick bed for creating slopes).
• Vitrified Tiles: Undergo "vitrification"; glass-like body, extremely low porosity ($<0.5\%$).
• Porcelain Tiles: Finer clay, higher firing temps; denser than ceramic.
• Homogenous Tiles: Full-body porcelain where color is consistent throughout the thickness.
• Vinyl Tiles: Synthetic (PVC/fiberglass). Thicknesses: $1.5\,mm$, $2.0\,mm$, $3.0\,mm$. Sheets come in rolls $1.80\,m$ wide.
• Terrazzo: Composite of stone chips (marble, quartz) in a cementitious or epoxy binder.

Paints and Coatings

• Composition: Pigment (color/consistency), Vehicle (liquid carrier), Binder (structure/adhesion), Solvent (dissolves paint for workability).
• Types:
  • Primer/Sealer: Basecoats for adhesion or reducing absorption.
  • Alkyd: Resin binder; oil-based.
  • Latex: Water-based acrylic emulsion.
  • Intumescent: Swells into insulating foam when exposed to fire.
• Common Defects:
  • Blistering: Localized loss of adhesion causing bubbles.
  • Blocking: Undesirable sticking of two painted surfaces (e.g., door to jamb).
  • Burnishing: Increase in gloss due to rubbing or friction.
  • Efflorescence: Crusty white salt deposits on masonry.
  • Saponification: Soap-like substance from oil paint on alkaline masonry.

Hardware Systems

• Rough Hardware: Concealed metal fittings (bolts, clips, etc.).
• Finish Hardware (Architectural Hardware):
  • Hinges: Butt hinges (Full Mortise, Half-Surface), Olive-knuckle, Invisible (SOSS), Spring hinges.
  • Locksets: Mortise (secure, includes deadbolt/latch), Bored/Cylindrical (easier install), Unit (preassembled).
  • Closers: Devices for automatic closing and control of opening distance.
  • Panic Hardware: Push bars for safe egress during emergencies.

Roofing and Insulation

• Roof Forms: Shed, Gable, Hip, Mansard, Gambrel, Butterfly, Ogee.
• Roofing Materials:
  • GI Corrugated: $GA24\, (0.60\,mm)$ for flashings/gutters, $GA26\, (0.40\,mm)$ for roofing. Standard width $32\,in.$.
  • Clay/Concrete Tile: Heavy, durable, fire-resistant; requires strong framing.
  • Slate: Natural stone split into shingles ($\frac{3}{16}\text{ to }1\,in.$ thickness).
• Insulation Types:
  • SPF (Spray Polyurethane Foam): Expanding foam sprayed into cavities.
  • ICF (Insulated Concrete Forms): Stay-in-place EPS panels filled with concrete.
  • SIPs (Structural Insulated Panels): Stress-skin walls with EPS/Urethane cores.
  • Fiberglass: Fine glass fibers (often recycled).
  • Rock and Slag Wool: From basalt or iron ore slag; non-flammable.

Building Protection

• Waterproofing:
  • Cementitious: Acrylic polymer + cement; can be Crystalline (blocks pores) or Flexible.
  • Bituminous: Asphalt-based; Torch-applied (thin layer), Self-adhesive, or Hot-melt.
  • Integral: Added into the concrete mix (Reactive vs. Unreactive).
• Damp-proofing: Polyethylene film ($2, 3, 4,\text{ or }6\,mil$) used as a vapor barrier below slabs.
• Wood Preservation:
  • Oil-type: Creosotes (toxic to fungi but smelly/unpaintable), Pentachlorophenol.
  • Water-borne: CCA (Chromated Copper Arsenate) and ACA; chemical fixation makes them leach-resistant.
• Termite Control: Monitoring/Bait stations, Gas Fumigation (for drywood termites), Chemical Soil Poisoning.

Openings: Glass and Glazing

• Glass Types:
  • Float Glass: Molten glass floated on molten tin; uniform thickness.
  • Tempered Glass: $3\text{ to }5$ times stronger; breaks into small granules; cannot be cut after tempering.
  • Laminated Glass: Polyvinyl butyral resin interlayer; safety/bulletproof glass.
  • Low-E Glass: Microscopically thin metallic oxide layer reduces heat flow ($U\text{-factor}$).
  • Wired Glass: Mesh used for fire doors to prevent shattering.
• Doors:
  • PWD Minimum Width: $0.80\,m$ (Batas Pambansa Bilang 344).
  • Types: Hollow-core (honeycomb fiberboard), Solid-core (bonded timber), French, Dutch, Revolving.
• Windows:
  • Elements: Sill (slopes to shed water), Mullion (vertical divider), Transom (horizontal divider).
  • Operations: Casement (side-hung), Awning (top-hung), Jalousie (louvered slats), Bay (angles out with picture window center), Bow (curved panels).