UNIT 5
Chapter 12: Agriculture: Human-Environment Interaction
12.1 Agriculture and the Environment
Introduction to Agriculture
Agriculture: the purposeful cultivation of plants/raising of animals to produce goods for survival
4 factors with profound effects on the types of agriculture that take place in a location:
Elevation
Higher the elevation, shorter the growing season
Soil
The biologically active coating of Earth’s surface
Key characteristics: fertility, texture, structure
Topography
Slope of the land affects the soil’s ability to stay in place and retain water
Position of land toward/away from sun affects how much sun energy the land receives
Climate
Varies greatly across the globe and is based on 4 key factors:
Equator distance
Wind and ocean currents
Proximity to large bodies of water
Topography
SECT
Climate Regions
Areas that have similar climate patterns generally based on their latitude and location on coasts or continental interiors
Tropical climates have year-round warm temperatures, but vary in amounts of precipitation
Dry climates usually found in continental interiors, either arid or semiarid
Temperate climates have moderate temperatures and adequate precipitation
Milder, wet winters of Mediterranean climate support Mediterranean agriculture (hardy trees, shrubs, raising goats and sheep)
Two polar climates (tundra and ice cap), found near North and South poles, extremely cold
12.2 Agricultural Practices
Subsistence Agriculture & Commercial Agriculture
Subsistence farming: farmers grow and raise a diverse range of crops/livestock for their own family’s consumption
Commercial agriculture: farmers grow crops/livestock for profit and to sell to customers
Both are practiced at intensive and extensive scales
Further from market = cheaper
Closer to market = more expensive
Rural Survey Methods
Metes and bounds
Describes property boundaries in term of lines drawn in a certain direction for a specific distance from clear reference points
Long-lot survey system
Adjacent long strips of land stretching back from frontage along a river or lake
Township and range system
Townships of 6 miles x 6 miles, total of 36 square miles
Intensive Agriculture
Farmers expend a great deal of effort to produce as much yield as possible from an area of land
They rely on high levels of “inputs” and energy to achieve high productivity
Inputs: human or animal labor, chemical and natural fertilizers, care of the soil, pesticides, growth regulators
Technology speeds up essential farming steps (plowing, planting, harvesting)
Subsistence:
People working the land intensively to generate high crop yields on small plots of land to support their family and community
Feeds more than half of the ppl living in densely populated semi-peripheral and peripheral countries
Commercial:
Involves heavy labor and capital investments, results in high profit yields
Often has chemical fertilizers and machines, rather than mainly relying on human and animal labor
Monocropping: the cultivation of one or two crops
Allows for specialization, simplifies cultivation, maximizes efficiency
Crop rotation used to prevent soil depletion (varying of crops from year to year so nutrients can restore in the soil)
Those who practice this must heavily invest in high-yield seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides to maintain the soil and maximize plant growth (can harm the environment)
Plantation agriculture: large scale commercial farming of one crop grown for distant markets
Typically takes place in peripheral and semi-peripheral economies in the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, & the Americas
Tend to be labor-intensive operations with low labor cost due to their being peripheral
Market gardening: produces fruits, veggies, and flowers, typically serves a specific market/urban area
Cultivates high yields on small tracts of land with intensive production methods
Truck farming was once synonymous with this, but now serves markets distant from the farm
Mixed crop and livestock systems: both crops and livestock are raised for profit
On-farm mixed farming: raised on the same farm
In between-farm mixing: two farmers share resources, one crops one livestock
Extensive Agriculture
Typically uses fewer inputs and less labor, results in lower outputs than intensive practices
Found in peripheral and semi-peripheral countries, also in ranching enterprises in core countries
Can be in both subsistence and commercial agricultural regions
Often found in regions with marginal environments
Shifting cultivation: the practice of growing crops/grazing animals of a piece of land for 1-2 years, then abandoning the land when there are no remaining nutrients, then moving somewhere else to repeat this process
Slash and burn: type of shifting cultivation where land is cleared by cutting down trees and brush, and after the vegetation dries, burning the “slash”
Nomadic herding/pastora nomadism: practice of moving animals seasonally, or as needed to allow best grazing
Some nomads engage in transhumance: the movement of herds between pastures at cooler, higher elevations during summer months, and lower elevations at winter
Ranching: typically carried out in sparsely populated areas farther away from markets/city centers
Comparing Intensive and Extensive Agriculture
Large expanses of land with less nutrient-rich soil call for extensive agricultural practices
Rich soils which can produce high yields are better for intensive agricultural practices
Areas with marginal agricultural potential are generally only able to support small populations
Areas with highly productive agriculture can support large populations
Rural Settlement Patterns
Most common form of settlement is a clustered/nucleated settlement, where residents live in proximity to each other
Dispersed settlements: houses and buildings are isolated from one another, all the homes in a settlement are distributed over a relatively large area
Linear settlement: houses and buildings extend inn a long line that usually follows a land feature, like a riverfront, coast, or hill, or that lines up with a transportation route
12.3 Agricultural Origins and Diffusions
Agricultural Hearths
People living in diff places domesticated diff plants and animals at diff times, from around 11,000 to 1,000 b.c.e.
Domestication: the deliberate effort to cultivate plants and animals, making them adapt to human demands, and using selective breeding to develop desirable characteristics
Humans lived as foragers for a long period of time (small nomadic groups with primarily plant-based diets, eating small animals or fish for protein)
Agricultural hearth: an area where a group started domesticating plants/animals
There are multiple of them
First was Fertile Crescent (region in southwest asia around 11,000 years ago)
They share some features:
Fertile soil, water, moderate climate, residents with organizational skills
Irrigation development in certain regions
Efficient methods to store seeds and harvests
The Diffusion of Agriculture
First Global Diffusions
Agricultural knowledge spreads through relocation and stimulus diffusion
Many important crops diffused throughout Asia, Europe, and Africa over many years due to diffusion and trade
Many domesticated plants and animals had spread throughout these places by the 15th century
The Columbian Exchange
The exchange of goods and ideas between Europe, Asia, and the Americas after Christopher Colombus’s landing in the Americas in 1492
Result:
Populations exploded in Europe and Asia
American crops dominated diets of many ppl in the Eastern Hemisphere
Cattle and sheep were introduced by the Europeans, which are now in the American West and South American Pampas
Coffee (from East African highlands of Ethiopia) became a dominant cash crop in Central and South America
Diffusion in Modern Times
Still continues today
Ppl have a worldwide system of agriculture with global markets and expanding tastes, due to scientific advances and focused marketing
Producers seek new consumers for their products all year
12.4 Advances in Agriculture
The First Agricultural Revolution
Began about 11,000 years ago and lasted for several thousand years
Shift from foraging to farming
Occurred in diff hearths at diff times
Consequences:
Focus of human diet became the multiple staple crops produced, less diverse overall direct
Increased efficiency = more food = growing population
Not all people needed to grow food
Population growth = larger villages = first cities
First ancient civilizations developed
The Second Agricultural Revolution
Launched in the early 1700s by new practices and tools
Began in Britain and the Low Countries, diffused from those regions
Large improvements in crop yields
Organizational changes:
Previously, in Britain, agriculture was done by peasants who grew food for themselves on shared land
Gradually switched to an enclosure system (land is controlled by individual owners)
Owners with more control over their farms used more effective farming practices
Technological and planting innovations:
Horse-drawn seed drill
Mechanical reaper
Steel plow
New crop rotation methods to prevent soil exhaustion and increase yields
Consequences:
Food production changes = population boom
Peasant farmers pushed off land due to enclosure, farm mechanization = ready workforce for new factories (Industrial Revolution)
Third Agricultural Revolution
Began in early 20th century, continues til now
Broke away from long-standing reliance on animal power
Innovations:
Motorizezd tractors & other mechanical equipment
Synthetic fertilizers and pesticides
Advances in sceitnfici understanding used to manipulate genetic makeup of plants and animals (genetically modified organisms, GMOs)
Use of information technology & data analytics to maximize efficiency and yields (sometimes called the fourth agricultural revolution)
Green Revolution was part of the third agricultural revolution
1950s and 1960s, scientists used larger knowledge of genetics to develop new strains of crops with higher yields (wheat and rice)
Used to increase crop yields in peripheral/semi-peripheral areas in Mexico and South Asia
Consequences:
Millions of people fed, lives saved by increased agricultural production
Increased mechanization = less need for human labor
Producers are vulnerable to marketing and sales practices of multinational corporation, which dominate some tech
Environmental impacrs
Increased demand for water
Chemicals from pesticides that can harm insects, animals, and humans
Large amount of animal waste products
Large energy and natural resource usage from food production
Less biodiversity
Chapter 13: Patterns and Practices of Agricultural Production
13.1 Agricultural Production Regions
Economic Forces and Agriculture
Economic forces that influence agriculture include:
Material, land, and labor costs
Capital availability
Impact of government policies
Consumer preferences and market demands
Most subsistence agriculture occurs in rural Africa and parts of Asia and Latin America
Limited connections to global market, less access to credit and financial capital for farmers
Most subsistence farmers live in poverty
Low labor costs relative to machinery costs
Most commercial agriculture takes place in core and semi-peripheral countries
Occurs in places with existing infrastructure to access & supply global markets
Characteristics: modern farm equipment, advanced technologies, large plots of land
Farmers maximize income by purchasing high amount of external inputs
Requires access to capital
Dual agricultural economy: two agricultural sectors in the same country or region
Subsistence farms growing food for farmers
Commercial agriculture cultivating crops to sell (usually for export)
Agribusiness: the large-scale system including the production, processing, and distribution of agricultural products and equipment
Commercial farmers are just one part of this system
Higher yields from the following:
Advanced farm machinery and modern equipment increasing efficiency
Technology lengthening/changing growing season
Irrigation advances
Improved fertilizers and pesticides
Hybrid grains, fruits, and vegetables (varieties of plants bred to enhance desired characteristics and improve resistance to disease)
Amt of capital farmers have to invest in materials, inputs, and technology
Government policies greatly impact agricultural practices
Payments to farmers for growing or not growing certain crops
Regulations on imports/exports for agricultural products
Price supports in the form of government crop purchases, at a guaranteed price
Quotas to control certain crop supplies
Consumer preferences affect agricultural production
Dietary preferences that change seasonally and over time
More high-demand products are produced by farmers
EX: Farmers in Mexico use methods to increase yields in time to meet the avocado demand in the U.S. prior to the Super Bowl (guacamole)
13.2 The Spatial Organization of Agriculture
Family vs. Corporate Control
Family farms represent most farms
84% worldwide farms are less than 5 acres
Family farms account for less of the world’s total farmland
12% of total farmland is owned by family farms
Vast majority of farmland controlled by larger farms is in core countries
In the US:
# of farms has decreased since the 1960s
# of farms held steady in recent decades (just over 2 million)
More than 90% of farms are considered small (family-owned and operated mostly)
Recent trends hurt family farms and cause shift in agriculture’s spatial organization
Overall population is shifting from rural to urban areas
Young people see farming as hard work for little profit
Farmers die without successors
Costs are rising
Supply-heavy market makes prices fall (at times)
Vertical integration: when a company controls more than one stage of the production process
Difficult for small, family-owned farms
Commodity Chains
Commodity chain: a complex network connecting places of production with distribution to consumers
Pricing and Policies
High supply -> prices fall
Prices can drop so low that production costs are higher than the product value, putting farmers out of business
U.S. government protects farmers with low-cost loans, insurance, and farm subsidies (direct payments)
Susidies currently amount to ~~ $20 billion per year
Tend to benefit producers with the highest quantity of commodities over small farmers
Tariff: a tax or duty on a particular import or export
Raises the price of imported goods, making them more expensive to purchase than in-country goods, giving domestic producers an advantage
Can lead to trade wars, which can disrupt established commodity chains, lower the price of farm products, and cause farmers to lose business
13.1 The Von Thunen Model
Rural Land Use Patterns
Von Thunen model: the perishability of a product and transportation costs to the market both factor into a farmer’s decisions regarding agricultural practices
Dairy and produce, forests, grains, ranching and livestock
Applying Von Thunen Today
Von Thunen’s model is still loosely applied to contemporary agriculture, especially the role of transportation in patterns of production
Refrigerated containers can be transported by trucks, trains, ships, cargo planes
Allows eggs, dairy, and other perishable items to be produced farther from markets
Time-space compression due to efficient transportation has expanded markets available to most producers
13.4 Agriculture as a Global System
Agricultural Interdependence
No single country produces all the food consumed by its population
Global supply chains: same as commodity chains, but on a global scale
Enables products to be delivered from one country to another
Global supply chains become more complex → Increased interdependence of agricultural production and consumption
Global agricultural commodities: wheat, corn, soybeans, cotton, coffee, tea, cacao, and vanilla
Supply chain of global commodity products:
Production can start in a peripheral country where low-cost labor is available to grow and harvest crops - or, can start in a commercial producer in the U.S. or another core country (corn, wheat).
Processing and packaging can be in the same or another country as the grower
Commodity is distributed to markets usually in core locations globally
Global supply chains: same as commodity chains but on a global scale
Wheat, corn, soybeans, cotton, coffee, and tea are traded through global supply chains
Commodity dependency: Some peripheral countries are dependent on one cash crop
Cash crop: a crop produced for its commercial value
Reliance on one commodity is risky and unhealthy for an economy
These economies can be negatively affected by:
A drop in demand for the export
An increase in supply
Crop failure from natural occurrences (storms, droughts, extreme temperatures)
Trade wars
Infrastructure
Sufficient infrastructure is necessary to participate in the global agricultural system
Consists of networks and facilities such as:
Communication systems
Sewage, water, and electric systems
Roads and transportation systems
Political Relationships
Global supply chains are affected by political instability and trade wars
They trace their roots back to European colonial and imperial networks
European imperialism → monocropping
Some former colonies are still tied economically to past colonizers
Patterns of World Trade
Core countries: leading agricultural exporters and importers
Emerging economies (Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Russia) are becoming increasingly relevant
Share of imports by peripheral and semi-peripheral countries from other countries of the same is growing, primarily due to population growth
Food preferences alter patterns of consumption and production
Increased interest in plant-based foods creates a new demand for the production of veggie proteins
Fair trade movement: a global campaign to fix unfair wage practices and protect the ability of farmers to earn a living
Products are available everywhere, but in limited qualities
Consumers can buy fair trade products, which are priced higher, to support the movement’s goals
Chapter 14: Agricultural Sustainability in a Global Market
14.1 Consequences of Agricultural Practices
Altering the Environment
Agricultural landscapes: result from interactions between farming activities and a location’s natural environment
Agroecosystems: ecosystems modified for agricultural use
Shifting cultivation
Form of subsistence agriculture
Can result in soil degradation if the land doesn’t have enough recovery time
Predominantly in peripheral and semi-peripheral countries in South America, Central and West Africa, and Southeast Asia
Slash and burn farming
A type of shifting agriculture that permanently alters landscapes
Contributes to numerous environmental problems, including deforestation (loss of forest lands) and soil erosions
Usually practiced on marginal lands in tropical rainforests of Latin America, Africa, and Asia
Used historically and presently by tribal communities to survive
Terracing
Process of carving parts of a hill/mountainside into small, level growing plots (plateaus)
Usually practiced by subsistence farmers
Used in mountainous areas in various climates, including tropical wet climates
Often part of a cultural heritage and an undertaking that everyone collectively participates in
Irrigation can affect surface landscapes
Supports small subsistence farmers and major commercial operations
Reservoirs: artificial lakes created by building dams across streams and rivers to store water for irrigation
Diverting water for agriculture → reduced water levels → harmed fish
Damming rivers for irrigation can threaten water resources for many people
Aquifers: water sources below the surface, sometimes tapped for irrigation
If not recharged or replenished by drainage through the soil, water levels in aquifers can fall or disappear
Draining wetlands
Converting areas of land covered by/saturated with water into agricultural lands
Loss of habitat for fish, waterfowl, and mammals
Can cause flooding or storm damage to other lands
Pastoral nomadism
An extensive practice, usually subsistence agriculture
Practiced in dry climates in Southwest Asia, North Africa, the Arctic, & other regions where crop cultivation is difficult
Can cause damage if disrupted or poorly executed
Overgrazing → land degradation
Grazing → biodiversity loss, reduce plant cover
Soil erosion on mountain slopes
Poor practices → desertification (degradation of soil so it’s like a desert)
Environmental Consequences
Pollution
Water runoff from fields can contain chemicals and nutrients from pesticides and fertilizers, or bacteria and disease-carrying organisms
Land cover change
Land’s surface is altered by uses, including agriculture
Terracing → groundwater saturation → landslides
Deforestation from slash and burn is one of these
Soil salinization
Irrigation in arid and semiarid regions → excessive build-up of water-soluble salts in the soil
Desertification
Results when water consumption exceeds its replenishment capacity
Conservation and Sustainability Efforts
Governments and organizations worldwide are addressing the negative effects of agriculture through policies and efforts
International leading agencies established debt-for-nature swaps with peripheral countries
Commercial: conservation efforts give farmers financial incentives to use sustainable practices
Subsistence: focus is on critical need to preserve soil fertility and prevent soil erosion, while increasing yields by intensifying land use
Societal Consequences
Agriculture affects diet and lifestyle choices
Consumers have altered their diet in reaction to new agricultural innovations
Diets and social norms are tied to longstanding agricultural practices
Roles of women in farming vary among regions and agriculture types
Structural changes in agriculture → social changes
Loss of small farms harms social and economic fabric of rural communities
Monocropping makes farmers and consumers vulnerable to sudden price changes
14.2 Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture
Debates over Innovations
Biotechnology: the science of altering living organisms to create new products for specific purposes, such as crops to resist certain pests
Genetic modification: broader category, including all types of genetic manipulation of foods
Modern biotechnology supports genetic engineering (GE)
Arguments in favor of biotechnology/GMOS:
Increased crop yields
Drought, disease, and pest resistance
Improved nutritional values
Food production cost reduction
Agruments against:
Unknown environmental impacts
Possible impact on agricultural biodiversity (the variety/variability of plants, animals, and microorganisms that are used directly or indirectly for food/agriculture)
Intensified use of pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers
Genetic resistance of pests → use of more chemicals
Possible transfer of genetic material into unmodified plants
Threats to biodiversity in the wider ecosystem
Build-up of synthetic fertilizers in the soil, decreasing soil fertility
Arguments favoring aquaculture:
Less space and care-intensive than other agricultural types
Can provide enormous and consistent amounts of fish and seafood
Arguments against:
Water pollution & negative impact of antibiotics on the ecosystem
Possible compromise of native gene pools if farmed fish and native fish interbreed
Possible disease and parasite transfer to wild fish populations
Precision Agriculture
Uses a variety of cutting-edge technologies to apply inputs with pinpoint accuracy to maximize crop yields, reduce waste, and preserve the environment
Farmers can use GIS to map their fields and create a micro-level analysis of each field’s physical characteristics
Can be too expensive for smaller farmers, technology can be challenging to operate
Food Choices
Local food moments focus on choosing locally grown food
In some cities, small urban plots to provide fresh fruits and vegetables
Community Supported Agricultre (CSA): local farms sell shares of their output to consumers
Organic farm products are gaining popularity in core countries
Organic armers use natural fertilizers to promote long-term soil health and prevent runoff and water contamination
Wealthier consumers are willing to pay higher prices for organic food
Some consumers will pay more for fair trade products
Value-added crops are transformed from their original state to a more valuable state
Cheese, coffee, tea, and chocolate
They require production and business skills that can differ from those needed for traditional crops
Global diet trends exert the strongest influence on agriculture related to food choice
Meat consumption has risen in recent decades
Larger amounts of farmland needed to produce meats than to produce grains grown directly for human consumption
International appetite for processed food products in increasing
5% of US corn harvests used to produced sweeteners for processed foods
People around the world have a more diverse, globalized diet bc:
Trade policies
Technology
Contemporary agriculture
Diffusion
14.3 Feeding the World
Food Insecurity
Food security: the reliable access to safe and nutritious food which can support a healthy and active lifestyle
Food insecurity: the disruption of a household’s food intake/eating patterns due to poor food availability
According to the USDA, the most reported food insecurity cause is lack of money/resources
Causes of global food insecurity:
Distribution issues
Economic decisions made about the produced crops
Adverse weather conditions caused or increased by climate change
Government instability and chronic poverty
Loss of agricultural land from suburbanization → threat to global food production
Spread of suburbs reduces land available for food growth
Due to food globalization and commercialization, urban growth may not have a large impact of agriculture’s ability to meet food demands
The US has food issues like other countries
Losing farmland to urban development
Food insecurity is a large concern is low-income areas
⅓ of food-insecure Americans are single women with children
Poverty and food insecurity are linked, but not always connected
Conflict is a key factor affecting food security and nutrition
Warring parties use food as a weapon by deliberately denying its access for people associated with the opps
Food distribution is inadequate or unequal in conflict zones since political systems are poorly managed, corrupt, or in disarray
Crops fail when people are displaced from conflict
Economic Impacts on Food Production
Storage and transportation impact producers and consumers
Farms, food-processing facilities, and markets that sell food are often located far from each other
Poor storage, processing, transportation, or infrastructure along the supply chain → food insecurity
Inadequate infrastructure in many peripheral countries means that food grown elsewhere often can’t be transported to those in need
Economy of scale: the reduced cost of producing food items as the amount of production increases
Large-scale farming is more efficient than smaller-scale farming
Precision agriculture, biotechnology, and large machines are more productive per unit when used on larger areas
Government policies affect food production and availability
Corporate landholders in the US control most agricultural land
Largest commercial farms receive most of annual farm subsidies ($20 billion)
Subsidies can encourage overproduction of large-scale crops (corn, soybeans, wheat)
India’s government established policies to subsidize both farmers and low-income consumers
In many core economies, people are adopting globally conscious diets
Changing diets in wealthier countries have the potential to free up more land to grow food
Infrastructure improvements are also needed to ensure that food reaches those in need
14.4 Women in Agriculture
A Variety of Roles
Women produce 50+% of the world’s food and make up 43% of the agricultural labor force
Working women in peripheral countries are often in agriculture
⅓ of US farmers are female
Women in agriculture face gender-specific challenges
Women are largely limited to subsistence agriculture in peripheral countries
These women usually do not have land rights
Cultural biases prevent women from borrowing money in certain countries
Static gender roles keep women from selling their crops at the market
Women in agriculture experience difficult working conditions and a poor quality of life
In the US, women are farmers, ranchers, and land managers, and often face prejudice from their male counterparts
Women play a key role in food consumption
Women in cultures throughout the world have traditionally been in charge of selecting, cooking, and serving food to families
As their role in the workplace changes, families might eat out more, and grandmothers/domestic helpers may take over purchasing family food
Empowering Rural Women
Agricultural empowerment: having the ability to make decisions about land, livestock, seeds, fertilizer, and machinery, and control over finances and one’s own time
Benefits of empowering rural women:
Children gain better nutrition and education since their mothers’ income increases
Communities benefit when women have money to spend on schooling/other resources
Can help improve food insecurity for millions
Steps to empowering female farmers:
Education
Technical support
Access to capital
Government policies that promote gender equality