Cold War and a New Western World, 1945-1965
Confrontation of the Superpowers and the Origins of the Cold War
The period following World War II was defined by the deep suspicion and competition between the United States and the Soviet Union, leading to the Cold War. Historical perspectives on the origins of this conflict vary, often citing the tradition of power politics as a primary driver. The Soviet Union was primarily concerned with its western borders, seeking a buffer zone against future invasions, while the United States was interested in exercising its newfound global power and prestige. A major point of contention was the political future of Eastern Europe. Between 1945 and 1947, Communist governments were established in East Germany, Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, and Hungary. In response to perceived Soviet expansionism, the United States issued the Truman Doctrine in 1947, which stated that the U.S. would provide aid to any nation "threatened by the expansion of communism."
To facilitate the economic recovery of war-torn Europe and discourage the appeal of communism, the United States implemented the Marshall Plan, formally known as the European Recovery Program, providing approximately in aid. This was part of a broader American policy of containment. Tensions reached a peak over the status of Germany. In East Germany, the Soviet Union re-established the German Communist Party with a Soviet-style structure. This friction culminated in the Berlin Blockade (1948–1949), during which the Soviet Union cut off land access to West Berlin. The Western allies responded with the Berlin Air Lift, flying 13,000 tons of supplies daily into the city to bypass the blockade. By 1949, Germany was formally divided into two states: the West German Federal Republic under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and the German Democratic Republic led by Walter Ulbricht.
New Military Alliances and Global Nuclear Rivalry
The search for security led to the creation of rival military alliances and a policy of mutual deterrence. In 1949, the Soviet Union successfully tested its first atomic bomb. That same year, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed, initially including the United States, Belgium, Britain, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and Canada. West Germany, Greece, and Turkey joined later, and NATO has expanded to include 29 countries today. In 1955, the Soviet Union countered by forming the Warsaw Pact, a military alliance including its satellite states: Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania.
The Cold War soon became a global affair. The Korean War (1950–1953) began when North Korean forces invaded South Korea, eventually involving United Nations forces led by the U.S. and military intervention by China, ending in an uneasy truce. In Southeast Asia, the First Vietnam War saw Ho Chi Minh (1890–1969) and the Vietminh fight for independence from France, ending in a French peace agreement in 1954. During the presidency of Dwight Eisenhower (1952–1960), the U.S. adopted a policy of "massive retaliation" and formed new treaties to contain communism. Another crisis erupted in Berlin in 1958, leading to a standoff between Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) and President John F. Kennedy (1917–1963), resulting in the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961. The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, sparked by the discovery of Soviet missiles in Fidel Castro’s Cuba following the failed 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion, brought the world to the brink of nuclear war before Khrushchev agreed to turn back his ships.
Decolonization in Africa: Independence and Resistance
Between 1945 and 1965, European colonies in Africa sought independence, often transforming older political organizations into modern parties. Kwame Nkrumah (1909–1972) led the Convention People’s Party in the Gold Coast (Ghana), the first African political party in black Africa. In Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta (1894–1978) led the Kenya African National Union. While some leaders, particularly Western-educated intellectuals, favored non-violence, movements like the Mau Mau in Kenya employed the concept of "uhuru" (freedom) through violent clashes and assassinations.
In North Africa, Egypt had been independent since 1922 but remained under British control until a 1952 army coup overthrew King Farouk. Morocco and Tunisia gained independence from France, but Algeria faced a much bloodier path. Algeria had been a French colony since 1827, characterized by brutal conquest. By the mid-20th century, the island was home to French settlers known as pied-noirs or "colons." In 1947, the French National Assembly created an Algerian Assembly that gave disproportionate power to the European minority, which failed to satisfy the Muslim majority and spurred nationalism. The Algerian Civil War began on November 1, 1954, led by the National Liberation Front (FLN). It involved guerrilla warfare, FLN bombings of cafes, and a massive French response. France deployed 500,000 troops, spending roughly of its GDP on the war. Tactics included helicopter gunships, napalm, and the systematic use of torture, such as waterboarding and electric cattle prods. The Fourth Republic fell in 1958 and was replaced by the Fifth Republic under Charles de Gaulle, who eventually negotiated Algerian independence in 1962. In South Africa, the African National Congress (ANC) fought against the policy of apartheid, led by figures such as Nelson Mandela.
Decolonization in the Middle East and Asia
In the Middle East, the Arab League was formed in 1945. Independence followed for Lebanon (1942), Syria (1946), and Jordan (1946). The Ba’ath Party rose to prominence in 1963. The question of Palestine became central after the Holocaust, with President Truman supporting a Jewish state. A 1948 United Nations resolution divided Palestine, and Zionists proclaimed the State of Israel on May 14, 1948. Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–1970) emerged as a leader of Pan-Arabism in Egypt, nationalizing the Suez Canal in 1956. The Arab-Israeli dispute continued, with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) formed under Yasir Arafat (1929–2004). In the Six-Day War of June 1967, Israel tripled its territory, adding one million Palestinians to its jurisdiction.
In Asia, the process of independence was often marked by conflict. In 1947, British India was divided into Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan, a period marked by high tensions and the 1948 assassination of Mahatma Gandhi. Britain also granted independence to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Burma (Myanmar). In China, a civil war between Chiang Kai-shek’s (1887–1975) Nationalists and Mao Zedong’s (1893–1976) Communists ended in a 1948 Communist victory. Chiang Kai-shek relocated to Taiwan, while Mao implemented the collectivization of farmland and nationalized commerce by 1955. In 1958, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward.
Developments in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe
After Stalin's death in 1953, the Soviet Union moved toward a period of relative reform under Nikita Khrushchev. Stalin's previous policies had focused heavily on the promotion of heavy industry and the production of few consumer goods. Khrushchev ended forced labor camps and condemned Stalinist programs. However, his rule was marked by economic agricultural setbacks and industrial decline. In Eastern Europe, diverse patterns of Soviet dominance emerged. Yugoslavia, under Tito, maintained independence from Soviet control, and Albania also grew more independent. Most other satellites underwent "Stalinization," adopting five-year plans and collectivization. In 1956, upheaval occurred in Poland, where the Soviets allowed the country to follow its own socialist path in exchange for loyalty to the Warsaw Pact. In contrast, the 1956 Hungarian Revolt, a quest for reform and dissent, was brutally crushed by Soviet tanks.
The Revival of Democracy and Unity in Western Europe
Western Europe experienced a rapid economic recovery and a return to moderate democratic politics. In France, Charles de Gaulle established the Fifth Republic in 1958, enhancing presidential powers and investing heavily in nuclear arms until student riots in May 1968 led to his resignation in 1969. In West Germany, Chancellor Konrad Adenauer (1876–1967) oversaw the "economic miracle," reconciled with France, and addressed the Nazi past through the Nuremberg trials. Great Britain, under Clement Atlee (1883–1967), created the modern welfare state through nationalization, social security, and socialized medicine, despite its declining status as a global power. Italy was dominated by the Christian Democrats under a weak coalition government.
The move toward European unity began with economic solidarity. The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was formed in 1951 to eliminate trade barriers. This was followed by the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) and the European Economic Community (EEC), also known as the Common Market, in 1957.
North American Politics and Postwar Society
In the United States, the 1950s were characterized by the continuing influence of the New Deal, economic prosperity, and the "Red Scare" or McCarthyism. The 1960s were a decade of upheaval, featuring Lyndon Johnson’s "Great Society" programs and the Civil Rights Movement. Key figures included Martin Luther King Jr. (1929–1968) and Malcolm X (1925–1965), culminating in the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Canada also experienced significant post-war development.
Western society underwent a transformation into a consumer society. The middle class grew to include more white-collar workers, and the working class saw rising incomes and increased urbanization. Mass leisure and tourism became accessible due to shorter workweeks and paid holidays. This era saw the rise of the supermarket, first in the U.S. and later in Europe and Japan (seen in Frankfurt in 1954 and Japan in 1963). The welfare state expanded to provide healthcare and family allowances, though this created tensions regarding the cost of services and the role of women in society. Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986) published The Second Sex in 1949, arguing that women had been defined solely by their differences from men. This period also saw increased numbers of married women entering the workforce, though traditional wage patterns remained.
Arts, Literature, and Popular Culture
Postwar art was dominated by Abstract Expressionism, particularly the drip paintings of Jackson Pollock (1912–1956), such as Convergence (1952). Pop Art emerged later, exemplified by Andy Warhol (1930–1987). In literature, the Theater of the Absurd, led by Samuel Beckett (1906–1990), reflected the disillusionment of the era. The philosophical movement of existentialism, represented by Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) and Albert Camus (1913–1960), explored the dilemma of human existence. Religion saw a revival through Catholic dynamism and the reforms of Vatican II.
Popular culture became a global commodity, characterized by the "Americanization" of the world through movies, advertising, television, and music. Rock ‘n’ roll, while originating in the U.S., inspired global sensations like the Beatles in Britain, who captivated American audiences in the 1960s.
Questions & Discussion
1) How has the end of the Algerian War impacted politics in contemporary France? What social, racial, and political tensions have arisen after the war?
(Referencing the New York Times article "Echoes of Colonial Conflict in Algeria Reverberate in French Politics"). The end of the war remains a sensitive historical point, influencing populist candidates like Marine Le Pen and contributing to ongoing debates about French national identity.
2) Which two visions of France’s history do its citizens have? Which vision do you believe to be more valid? Why? Can they coexist?
Citizens often grapple with a vision of France as a grand, civilizing power versus a vision of France as a colonial oppressor. The validity of these visions is a matter of intense public and political debate in modern France.
Additional Discussion Questions:
- What factors caused decolonization?
- What changes in the Eastern European countries took place under Khrushchev?
- How and why did Western states adopt new strategies for unity after World War II?
- Was the problem in post-colonial India more politically or religiously based?
- What prevented France from becoming the third super power that De Gaulle wanted?
- What societal changes, especially in the U.S., took place in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s?