History Ch. 5
Summary of Key Terms and Figures
William Seward: U.S. Secretary of State from 1861 to 1869, known for his ambitious expansionistic policies, particularly the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867 for . This acquisition was initially ridiculed as "Seward's Folly" or "Seward's Icebox" due to perceptions of Alaska as a barren wasteland, but it later proved invaluable for its natural resources like oil and gold, and its strategic location.
Muckrakers: A group of investigative journalists and writers in the Progressive Era (early 20th century) who sought to expose corruption, social injustices, and corporate abuses in American society. They played a crucial role in stirring public awareness and often catalyzed significant reforms. Famous muckrakers included Ida Tarbell (exposing Standard Oil), Upton Sinclair (describing the unsanitary conditions in the meatpacking industry in The Jungle), and Lincoln Steffens (on political machine corruption).
"Remember the Maine": A powerful rallying cry that galvanized American public opinion and support for the Spanish-American War in 1898. It emerged after the USS Maine, an American naval ship, mysteriously exploded in Havana Harbor in February 1898, killing more than 260 American sailors. Although the cause of the explosion was never definitively proven at the time, sensationalist "Yellow Journalism" immediately blamed Spain, fueling patriotic fervor and demands for war.
Platt Amendment: A set of provisions the U.S. insisted Cuba incorporate into its constitution in 1901, and which Cuba was forced to accept before U.S. troops would withdraw after the Spanish-American War. It severely limited Cuba's sovereignty by granting the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs to preserve independence and maintain order, and allowed the U.S. to lease naval bases, most notably Guantanamo Bay. This effectively made Cuba a U.S. protectorate.
President McKinley: The 25th President of the United States (1897-1901) who presided over the Spanish-American War and the subsequent acquisition of new territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. He played a pivotal role in shifting U.S. foreign policy towards imperialism, notably justifying the annexation and retention of the Philippines on the grounds of American honor and the duty to "educate and uplift" the Filipino people, framing it as a benevolent act rather than colonial expansion.
President Woodrow Wilson: The 28th President of the United States (1913-1921), known for his "Moral Diplomacy." This approach aimed to promote democratic ideals, human rights, and self-determination in foreign policy, in contrast to the imperialistic and interventionist strategies of his predecessors (e.g., Taft's Dollar Diplomacy or Roosevelt's Big Stick Diplomacy). Despite his intentions, Wilson's presidency also saw significant U.S. military interventions in Latin America, often under the guise of promoting democracy.
Imperialism: A national policy or practice by which a strong nation extends its political, economic, or military control over weaker territories or countries. As detailed in earlier sections, this control can be achieved through various means, including direct military conquest, economic domination (acquiring land, controlling trade), or political influence (installing friendly governments). American imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was driven by economic factors (new markets, raw materials), national pride, military strength (naval bases), and cultural responsibility (spreading American values).
Boxer Rebellion: An anti-foreign uprising that took place in China between 1899 and 1901. It was led by a secret society known as the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, or "Boxers," who vehemently opposed the growing foreign influence and presence in China. The Boxers attacked foreign embassies, missionaries, and Chinese converts to Christianity. This led to a multinational military intervention, including U.S. forces, to suppress the rebellion. As a consequence, China was forced to pay substantial damages, and the U.S. played a role in preventing the complete partitioning of China into colonial territories, advocating for its Open Door Policy.
Theodore Roosevelt: The 26th President of the United States (1901-1909), a prominent figure of the era of American imperialism. He is famous for his "Big Stick Diplomacy," which emphasized readiness to use military force to achieve foreign policy goals (e.g., "Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick"). He led the Rough Riders cavalry unit in the Spanish-American War, distinguishing himself at the Battle of San Juan Hill. His presidency also saw the controversial acquisition and construction of the Panama Canal, solidifying U.S. strategic and economic power in the Western Hemisphere.
USS Maine: An American naval battleship whose explosion in Havana Harbor, Cuba, on February 15, 1898, served as a primary catalyst for the Spanish-American War. While the actual cause of the explosion remains debated by historians, it was immediately attributed to Spanish treachery by American newspapers employing "yellow journalism," fueling public outrage and cries of "Remember the Maine!" This event significantly pushed the U.S. towards declaring war on Spain.
Protectorate: A political entity (a country or territory) that is formally independent but in which a stronger foreign power exerts significant control over its foreign policy and often its internal affairs. The stronger power typically offers protection in exchange for influence, making the weaker state subject to military or economic intervention. Cuba, after the Spanish-American War and the implementation of the Platt Amendment, became a de facto U.S. protectorate.
Panama Canal: A monumental man-made waterway, completed in 1914, that cuts across the Isthmus of Panama, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Its construction was a primary goal for the U.S. to enhance global trade and military mobility, significantly reducing shipping times and costs. The U.S. acquired the rights to build the canal after supporting Panama's independence revolt against Colombia, a move characteristic of Theodore Roosevelt's "Big Stick" approach. The project was incredibly challenging, with over 25,000 workers dying due to disease and accidents.
San Juan Hill: A crucial and decisive battle site during the Spanish-American War in Cuba in July 1898. U.S. forces, including the famed Rough Riders led by Theodore Roosevelt, achieved a significant victory, leading to the rapid Spanish surrender in Cuba. Despite being a difficult charge against entrenched Spanish positions, the victory at San Juan Hill solidified U.S. control over Santiago and effectively ended the war on the ground in Cuba.
Rough Riders: The First U.S. Volunteer Cavalry Regiment, a colorful and highly publicized unit led by Theodore Roosevelt during the Spanish-American War in 1898. Comprising a diverse group of cowboys, miners, law enforcement officers, and college athletes, they gained national fame for their courageous charge up Kettle Hill (often conflated with San Juan Hill) in Cuba, playing a significant role in the American victory there and propelling Roosevelt to national prominence.
Annexation of Hawaii: The formal act by which the United States absorbed the sovereign Hawaiian Kingdom into its territory. This occurred in 1898, following a period of increasing American influence, particularly by U.S. sugar planters who had significant economic control. In 1893, American-backed planters, aided by U.S. Marines, overthrew Queen Liliuokalani, who sought to restore native Hawaiian power. The annexation was controversial, taking place without a vote or consent from the Hawaiian people, and reflected America's growing imperial ambitions for strategic Pacific outposts.
Alfred Mahan: A highly influential American naval officer and historian who profoundly shaped global naval strategy. His seminal work, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783 (1890), argued that national prosperity and global power were directly dependent on a strong navy, control of maritime commerce, and overseas bases. Mahan's theories heavily influenced U.S. policy, advocating for the expansion of the American fleet and the acquisition of strategic coaling stations and overseas territories, thereby fueling American imperialism.
Queen Liliuokalani: The last reigning monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom. She ascended to the throne in 1891 and immediately sought to restore power to native Hawaiians and limit the influence of American planters by proposing a new constitution. Her efforts were met with strong opposition from American business interests, who, with the support of U.S. Marines, orchestrated her overthrow in 1893, paving the way for the annexation of Hawaii by the United States five years later.
Anglo-Saxonism: A prevalent ideology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the U.S. and Britain, which posited that English-speaking nations (primarily Anglo-Saxon Protestants) were inherently superior in culture, intelligence, and moral character. This belief system often intertwined with racist ideologies and Social Darwinism, asserting that these nations had a divine duty to spread their democracy, Protestant Christianity, and institutions, often at the expense of non-Western cultures, thereby justifying imperial expansion and the "civilizing mission." This concept fueled American expansionism, particularly expressed by figures like Josiah Strong.
Manifest Destiny: A widely held belief in 19th-century America that the U.S. was divinely ordained to expand its dominion and spread democracy and capitalism across the North American continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific. While initially focused on continental expansion, during the era of imperialism, the concept evolved to justify American expansion beyond its borders into the Caribbean and the Pacific, suggesting an inherent right and duty to exert influence globally.
The Influence of Sea Power: This refers to the full title of Alfred T. Mahan's influential book, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783. Published in 1890, this work became a cornerstone of naval strategy worldwide, arguing forcefully that control of the seas through a powerful navy, well-distributed coaling stations, and strategic colonies was absolutely essential for a nation's economic prosperity, security, and global power. Its ideas profoundly impacted American foreign policy and naval expansion prior to and during the age of imperialism.
Yellow journalism: A sensationalist style of newspaper reporting popular in the late 19th century, characterized by exaggerated, fabricated, or biased news stories presented in a dramatic and eye-catching manner. Its primary goal was to attract readers and influence public opinion, often without regard for factual accuracy. This form of journalism, notably practiced by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, played a critical role in inflaming American sentiment against Spain and pushing the U.S. into the Spanish-American War, particularly through its coverage of the USS Maine explosion.
Foraker Act (1900): A significant U.S. federal law enacted in 1900 that effectively ended military rule in Puerto Rico after the Spanish-American War and established a civilian government there. While it granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship (later modified), it did not extend full constitutional rights or self-governance. The act defined Puerto Rico as an unincorporated territory of the U.S., meaning it was subject to American rule but not destined for statehood, and its residents were not granted the same rights as mainland citizens, reflecting the challenges of integrating newly acquired territories into the American system.
Open Door Policy: A U.S. foreign policy initiative proposed by Secretary of State John Hay in 1899, primarily concerning China. Fearing that European powers and Japan were about to divide China into exclusive "spheres of influence" and shut out American trade, the U.S. advocated for equal commercial opportunities for all nations within China. This policy effectively called for open access to China's millions of consumers and raw materials, attempting to ensure that no single power could monopolize Chinese trade, thereby safeguarding American economic interests without directly consulting China's sovereignty.
Commodore Perry (Matthew C. Perry): An accomplished U.S. naval officer who led a squadron of American warships to Japan in 1853-1854. His diplomatic and military mission successfully forced Japan to end its long-standing policy of isolationism, opening its ports to American trade through the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854). Perry's expedition marked a pivotal moment in Japanese history, spurring its rapid modernization and subsequent emergence as a major regional power, while also signaling expanding American interest and influence in Asia.