Success and Setbacks of the Civil Rights Movement

Barriers to African American Suffrage in the South

• Institutionalized Exclusion: Despite the progress of the Civil Rights Movement, the Southern political system utilized several mechanisms to prevent African Americans from participating in the democratic process.

• Literacy Tests: These were examinations ostensibly designed to prove a voter's ability to read and write. In practice, they were manipulated as follows:     * White applicants were typically administered a standard, basic literacy test.     * African Americans and other people of color were given significantly more difficult tests that were nearly impossible to pass.

• Poll Taxes: These were mandatory fees required for voting. This financial barrier was particularly effective against the poor class, who did not have discretionary income to pay the tax.

• Intimidation Tactics: Physical and social intimidation were used to discourage African Americans from attempting to register or vote.

• Statistical Disparity: In Mississippi in $1964$, five counties with African American majorities did not have a single registered African American voter.

Freedom Summer and the Push for Voter Registration

• SNCC Organizing Efforts: The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) spent several years leading voter education initiatives.

• Freedom Summer ($1964$): A massive campaign organized with the primary goal of registering African Americans to vote in the South.

• Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP): Formed as an alternative to the regular, all-white Democratic Party, it was intended to give African Americans a more robust voice in the political landscape.

The March on Selma and "Bloody Sunday"

• Objectives: The march was organized to put direct pressure on the federal government to pass comprehensive voting rights legislation.

• Bloody Sunday: This incident occurred when marchers attempting to cross the bridge in Selma were attacked by heavily armed state troopers and other local authorities.

• Impact of Television: For the first time, television coverage allowed the entire nation to see the violence perpetrated against African Americans in real-time.     * Unlike newspapers or radio, which provided reports after the fact, television provided a visual experience that outraged the American public.     * This media coverage was a catalyst for many white Americans to recognize the severity of the situation and began to shift public opinion in favor of the Civil Rights Movement.     * Following the national outcry, President Lyndon B. Johnson called for strong federal voting rights laws.

Legislation and Reform: The Voting Rights Act of $1965$ and the $24^{th}$ Amendment

• The Voting Rights Act of $1965$:     * Prohibition of Literacy Tests: The act officially banned the use of literacy tests as a requirement for voting.     * Federal Oversight: The legislation empowered the federal government to oversee registration and elections in states that had historically discriminated against minorities. If a state had a history of disenfranchisement, intimidation, or outlawed practices, the federal government would intervene to ensure compliance.

• The $24^{th}$ Amendment: The legislation laid the groundwork for this amendment, which explicitly banned both literacy tests and poll taxes in federal elections.

Urban Unrest and the Kerner Commission

• The Watts Riot ($1965$): Less than one week after the signing of the Voting Rights Act, a massive race riot broke out in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles.     * The riot involved violence, looting, and arson.     * National Guard troops were eventually deployed to restore order after several days of unrest.

• Riots of $1967$: Violence erupted in several cities, most notably Newark, New Jersey, and Detroit, Michigan.     * Detroit Statistics: During the $1967$ Detroit riot, $43$ people lost their lives, and property damage reached approximately $\$50,000,000$.

• Changing Dynamics of Violence: Historically, race riots often involved whites using violence to suppress African Americans. In the $1960s$, the dynamic shifted, with African Americans using violence against police and white-owned businesses in their neighborhoods.

• The Kerner Commission: President Johnson established the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, famously known as the Kerner Commission, to investigate the causes of these riots.     * Findings: The commission concluded that long-term racial discrimination was the single most significant cause of the violence.     * Recommendations: The commission suggested expanding federal programs to address the problems found in urban ghettos.     * Controversy: Conservative commentators argued that expanding federal spending amounted to "rewarding" rioters. Others criticized the report for focusing solely on a black-white split while ignoring other minority groups.

• The Vietnam War Factor: President Johnson ultimately did not follow the Kerner Commission's recommendations. The immense financial cost of the Vietnam War consumed the federal budget, leaving little money for new social programs.

The Rise of Radicalism: Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam

• Malcolm X (Malcolm Little): Born in Omaha, Nebraska, in $1925$, he adopted "X" to symbolize his lost African name.

• Early Life and Prison: After a troubled childhood involving drugs and crime, he was sent to prison at age $21$ for burglary.

• Nation of Islam (NOI): While incarcerated, he joined the Nation of Islam, a religious sect led by Elijah Muhammad.     * Strict Codes: The group mandated no use of drugs or alcohol.     * Ideology: They demanded the separation of the races.

• Ministry and Message: Upon release, Malcolm X became the most prominent minister for the NOI. He advocated for:     * Self-reliance and Self-protection.     * Black Pride.     * Black Nationalism: Defined as the belief in a separate identity and racial unity for the African American community.

• Oratory Skills: Malcolm X was described as a charismatic speaker who could command an audience with the skill of a great musician.

• Break with NOI: In $1964$, he left the Nation of Islam to form his own organization. He made a pilgrimage to Mecca and took the name El Hajj Malik El Shabazz.

• Assassination: In February $1965$, after expressing a growing willingness to consider limited acceptance of whites, he was shot and killed by three members of the Nation of Islam.

The Black Power Movement and the Black Panther Party

• Shift in Philosophy: Young African Americans, identifying as heirs to Malcolm X, began moving away from nonviolence and questioning the feasibility of integration.

• Stokely Carmichael: He popularized the term "Black Power" in $1966$. Many white Americans at the time incorrectly equated the term with black violence.

• The Black Panther Party: Formed in Oakland, California, by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale.     * Militancy: They became the symbol of a new, militant African American movement.     * Activities: They organized armed patrols in urban neighborhoods to protect citizens from perceived police abuse.     * Social Programs: They established antipoverty initiatives, such as free breakfast programs for poor African American children.     * Cultural Impact: The movement encouraged African Americans to embrace their heritage, popularizing afros and the shift in terminology from "Negro" or "colored" to "Black."

Lasting Historic Results of the Civil Rights Movement

• Legislative and Judicial Success: The movement was successful in eliminating legal segregation and dismantling systemic barriers.

• Representation: Thurgood Marshall was appointed as the first African American Supreme Court Justice.

• Fair Housing Act: This law was passed to ban discrimination in the sale or rental of housing.

• Political Participation: There was a marked increase in African American participation in Congress.

• Ongoing Protections: The Voting Rights Act continued to grant the federal government the authority to oversee election practices in areas where voting rights were deemed at risk.