Mobilization was a race against time as Germany prepared to deliver a knockout blow in WWI.
The U.S. faced a challenge: Could it mobilize its massive economic resources fast enough to make a difference?
President Woodrow Wilson and his advisers confronted this question in early U.S. war involvement.
Industry and Labor
The Wilson administration promoted Progressive efficiency through the creation of temporary wartime agencies staffed by business and government experts.
This mobilization set a precedent for future governmental leadership during economic crises, notably the New Deal programs during the Great Depression.
Key Figures:
Bernard Baruch: Wall Street broker who led the War Industries Board, which set production priorities and centralized materials and prices.
Herbert Hoover: Took charge of the Food Administration, encouraging households to conserve food for troops, resulting in a tripling of U.S. food shipments overseas.
Harry Garfield: Headed the Fuel Administration, which promoted coal conservation through the closure of nonessential factories and the introduction of daylight saving time.
William McAdoo: Treasury Secretary who headed the Railroad Administration to coordinate railroad traffic and standardize equipment.
William Howard Taft: Mediated worker-employer disputes as head of the National War Labor Board, achieving labor concessions such as wage increases and the widespread adoption of the eight-hour workday.
Finance
The U.S. government raised $33 billion in the span of two years to fund the war through loans and taxes.
Methods included:
Liberty Bonds: Massive drives encouraged Americans to invest savings in government bonds.
Tax Increases: Personal income, corporate taxes, and new luxury goods taxes were implemented.
Public Opinion
The government adopted patriotic persuasion and legal intimidation methods to ensure public support.
George Creel: Headed the Committee on Public Information, which utilized artists and performers to depict soldiers' heroism and the vileness of the Kaiser.
Techniques:
Production of films, posters, pamphlets, and organizing speakers to promote vigilance against German spies.
Civil Liberties
War hysteria led to prejudice against minorities, with nativist groups pushing narratives of disloyalty.
The American Protective League mobilized campaigns like “Hate the Hun” against German culture.
The Barred Zone Act (1917) restricted immigration from certain regions and established literacy tests that disproportionately affected southern and eastern Europeans.
Espionage and Sedition Acts
Laws passed that restricted free speech during the war:
Espionage Act (1917): Punished those inciting rebellion or obstructing the draft, with potential imprisonment of up to 20 years.
Sedition Act (1918): Broadened restrictions against disloyal remarks about the government, resulting in prosecution of around 2,000 people and convictions including Socialist Eugene Debs.
Schenck v. United States (1919)
The Supreme Court upheld the Espionage Act’s constitutionality, establishing that free speech could be limited in cases of "clear and present danger."
Armed Forces
Post-declaration of war, voluntary enlistment surged, but Selective Service Act (1917) was implemented to conscript soldiers.
Drafting required all men aged 21 to 30 (later 18 to 45) to register, calling about 2.8 million men through a lottery in addition to nearly 2 million volunteers.
African Americans and Segregation
Racial segregation persisted within the army; almost 400,000 African Americans served in segregated units, with limited officer opportunities and exclusion from the Marine Corps.
W.E.B. Du Bois advocated for recognition of African American service to earn civil rights post-war, a hope that would not be realized.
Effects on American Society
The wartime economy required adjustment across demographics, with movements from rural to urban areas for work in factories.
Job Changes:
Women entered the workforce to fill roles left by draftees, convincing Wilson to support women's suffrage through the 19th Amendment.
Mexican immigrants migrated north as opportunities arose due to both job availability and upheaval in Mexico.
The Great Migration of African Americans from the South northward was driven by racial violence, economic hardship, and agricultural collapse due to natural disasters.
Postwar Challenges
Transitioning from war fervor to economic and social stresses proved difficult as recovery from the “patriotic” period took place.
1918 Influenza Pandemic: In 1918, a significant flu outbreak claimed an estimated 50 million lives worldwide, with 500,000 to 675,000 fatalities in the U.S. It had a particularly high mortality rate among those aged 20 to 40.
Demobilization: Returned soldiers often found jobs in competition with workers who had filled roles during the war. Factories saw a decline in demand, leading to recession after the brief post-war boom, ultimately resulting in high unemployment and inflation.
Red Scare
Led by anti-communist sentiments, the Red Scare of 1919 reflected dissatisfaction with the peace process and fears of labor unrest.
Palmer Raids: Following bombings, Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer implemented mass arrests of alleged radicals, targeting foreigners and leftists, with over 6,000 arrests.
Labor Conflict
Anti-union sentiments resurfaced post-war, despite earlier gains during wartime.
Significant strikes highlighted tensions, including the Seattle General Strike and the Boston Police Strike, which were often met with violence and government intervention.
Racial Violence
The post-war period saw numerous race riots, with significant incidents occurring in Chicago and the Tulsa Race Massacre where African American prosperity was met with fierce resentment and violence.
Decline of Progressive Impulse
The ideals of Progressivism waned after WWI as the U.S. population gravitated towards conservatism, favoring economic prosperity and a return to pre-war norms.
Economic and social changes characterized the decade following the war.
The 1920s were marked by a boom economy, technological advances, and cultural shifts.
Economic Boom of the 1920s
Driven by increased productivity, including the assembly line model introduced by Henry Ford that catalyzed manufacturing efficiencies across industries.
The reliance on new energy technologies saw oil and electricity become more prevalent in daily life, which boosted industrial growth.
Governmental policies favored big businesses, with reduced tax burdens and regulatory enforcement declining.
The Consumer Economy
The introduction of electrical appliances transformed daily life, leading to increased consumer credit.
The automobile industry exploded, radically changing mobility and societal norms, contributing to a new consumer culture.
Impact on Social Fabric
Urbanization increased, altering community dynamics and highlighting generational divides rooted in traditional versus modern values.
Technology and Culture
Growth in cinema, radio, and jazz defined the cultural landscape.
Americans turned to new forms of entertainment, creating shared national experiences through media.
Political Climate of the 1920s
The Republican Party dominated U.S. politics, balancing business interests with some government regulation in economic affairs.
The presidencies of Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover shaped policies that responded to the fluctuations of economic growth.
Recession of 1921
Early 1920 tension led to a brief recession, largely due to shifts from wartime to peacetime economy and subsequent recovery efforts focused on stabilizing business.
Causes of the 1929 Crash
The Great Depression was precipitated by stock market speculation and declines, leading to widespread economic collapse.
The structure of the economy revealed significant income inequality, ineffective agricultural policies, and faulty monetary measures.
Social Effects of the Great Depression
The Great Depression's toll was widespread, with soaring unemployment, particularly affecting marginalized groups and exacerbating societal tensions.
Presidential Response and Public Expectations
Hoover's initial responses to the Depression emphasized voluntary actions and local relief, which proved inadequate as economic conditions worsened.
The failure of policies like the Hawley-Smoot Tariff exacerbated international trade difficulties and deepened economic issues.
Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal
Roosevelt's presidency represented a shift toward expansive federal government involvement in economic relief and recovery efforts.
Key agencies and reforms, including the AAA, NRA, and FERA, showcased attempts to stabilize and reform the economy.
Social Security Act established a safety net for Americans, shaping welfare policy for generations to come.