Chapter 1 Exam Review Sheet

Introduction to Pathophysiology

This chapter is terminology-heavy, so your goal is not to memorize random definitions. Your goal is to understand how the words connect:

Etiology causes disease → pathogenesis explains development → clinical manifestations appear → diagnosis is made → prognosis predicts outcome → treatment targets cause/symptoms → prevention reduces risk.

Your roadmap specifically says Chapter 1 = KNOW TERMINOLOGY. Your vocab sheet also lists Chapter 1 terms like acute/chronic, pathogenesis, idiopathic, etiology, clinical manifestations, signs/symptoms, risk factors, iatrogenic, nosocomial, local/systemic, and homeostasis.

1. Big Picture: What Is Pathophysiology?

Pathophysiology = “What goes wrong and why”

Pathophysiology studies the mechanisms of disease.

Break the word down:

Word Part	Meaning
patho-	disease
physio-	function
-ology	study of

So:

Pathophysiology = study of disordered body function caused by disease.

This class is where you stop just memorizing “symptoms” and start asking:

What structure is damaged?
What function is lost or changed?
Why does that cause the clinical manifestations?
What complications can happen if homeostasis is not restored?

2. The 3 Major Themes of the Human Body

Theme 1: Anatomy + Physiology Work Together

Term	Meaning
Anatomy	structure of the body
Physiology	function of the body

The book’s key idea:

Structure determines function.

Example

The lungs have thin alveoli because they need to exchange gases quickly.

If alveoli become filled with fluid, inflamed, scarred, or collapsed:

structure changes
gas exchange decreases
oxygenation drops
patient may develop dyspnea, hypoxemia, cyanosis, or respiratory distress

That is pathophysiology.

Theme 2: Body Organization Is Hierarchical

The body is organized from small to large:

Cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism

Why this matters

Disease can start small but affect the whole body.

Example:

Cell injury in pancreatic beta cells
→ decreased insulin
→ increased blood glucose
→ diabetes mellitus
→ vascular damage, neuropathy, kidney damage, eye damage

This is why one cellular problem can become systemic.

Theme 3: Homeostasis Is the Main Goal

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the body’s tendency to maintain internal balance.

The body works best when things stay within narrow limits, such as:

water level
oxygen level
carbon dioxide level
blood glucose
temperature
blood pressure
acid-base balance
electrolytes

Critical thinking

Pathophysiology is basically the study of:

What happens when homeostasis fails.

Examples

Homeostatic Variable	Normal Goal	If Altered
Blood glucose	stable energy supply	hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia
Body temperature	enzyme/cell function	fever or hypothermia
Blood gases	oxygen delivery + CO₂ removal	hypoxia, acidosis
Sodium/water balance	fluid movement	dehydration, edema, neuro changes
Blood pressure	tissue perfusion	shock, organ damage

3. Pathophysiology Word Chain

This is the core of Chapter 1.

Disease Process Chain

Risk factors → etiology → pathogenesis → clinical manifestations → diagnosis → prognosis → treatment/prevention

Memorize that chain.

Example: Coronary Artery Disease

Step	Example
Risk factors	smoking, high cholesterol, hypertension, obesity
Etiology	multifactorial; plaque formation, vascular injury
Pathogenesis	plaque narrows coronary arteries
Clinical manifestations	chest pain, shortness of breath, fatigue
Diagnosis	ECG, troponin, stress test, angiography
Prognosis	depends on damage, treatment, risk control
Treatment	lifestyle, medications, procedures
Prevention	diet, exercise, smoking cessation, BP control

4. Must-Know Vocabulary

Core Pathophysiology Terms

Term	Definition	Exam Example
Pathophysiology	study of disease mechanisms and altered body function	“Why does pneumonia cause hypoxia?”
Pathology	study of structural/cellular changes caused by injury or disease	damaged lung tissue, necrotic tissue
Physiology	study of normal body function	normal breathing, circulation, digestion
Anatomy	study of body structure	lungs, heart, blood vessels
Disease	functional impairment of cells, tissues, organs, or systems	diabetes, pneumonia, cancer
Pathogenesis	development of disease from beginning to clinical presentation	beta cell destruction before diabetes symptoms
Etiology	precise cause of disease	influenza virus causes flu
Idiopathic	disease with unknown cause	idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
Pathogen	disease-causing microorganism	bacteria, virus, fungus, protozoa
Diagnosis	label/name given to disease after evaluating data	pneumonia, asthma, hypertension
Syndrome	predictable cluster of signs/symptoms	Down syndrome, metabolic syndrome
Treatment	intervention aimed at reducing cause or manifestations	antibiotics, fluids, surgery
Prognosis	predicted disease outcome	excellent, guarded, poor

5. Etiology vs Pathogenesis

Do not mix these up. This is very testable.

Etiology = Cause

Etiology asks:

What caused the disease?

Examples:

Influenza virus causes flu.
Smoking contributes to lung cancer.
Bacteria cause some infections.
Trauma causes a fracture.

Pathogenesis = Development

Pathogenesis asks:

How did the disease develop and progress?

Example using diabetes:

beta cell destruction begins
insulin production decreases
glucose cannot enter cells properly
blood glucose rises
symptoms develop
complications may occur

Exam Trap

If the question asks “what caused it?”
Answer = etiology

If the question asks “how did it develop?”
Answer = pathogenesis

6. Risk Factors

Risk Factors

Risk factors are characteristics or exposures that increase the chance of developing disease.

Two types

Type	Meaning	Examples
Modifiable	can be changed	smoking, diet, activity level, weight
Nonmodifiable	cannot be changed	age, genetics, sex, family history

Example: Coronary Artery Disease

Risk factors from the chapter include:

elevated cholesterol
elevated blood pressure
cigarette smoking
family history/genetic predisposition
obesity
sedentary lifestyle

Critical thinking

Risk factors do not guarantee disease.

They mean:

“This patient is more vulnerable.”

Exam wording may say:

“Which patient is at greatest risk?”

You pick the patient with the strongest risk factors.

7. Idiopathic, Iatrogenic, Nosocomial

These three are easy points if you keep them straight.

Term	Meaning	Example
Idiopathic	unknown cause	disease appears without known etiology
Iatrogenic	caused unintentionally by medical treatment	UTI after urinary catheter placement
Nosocomial	acquired in healthcare setting	patient gets chickenpox or infection while hospitalized

Ruthless correction

Do not say nosocomial and iatrogenic are the same. They can overlap, but they are not identical.

Difference

Nosocomial = where it came from: healthcare setting
Iatrogenic = how it happened: medical treatment caused it

Example

A patient develops pneumonia from exposure in the hospital.

This is nosocomial.

A patient develops a UTI after catheter insertion.

This is iatrogenic.
It may also be healthcare-associated depending on setting.

8. Clinical Manifestations

Clinical Manifestations

Clinical manifestations are the signs and symptoms of disease.

They are what the disease looks like clinically.

Signs vs Symptoms

Term	Meaning	Type	Example
Signs	objective, observable, measurable	provider can see/measure	fever, rash, high BP, swelling
Symptoms	subjective, reported by patient	patient tells you	pain, nausea, fatigue, tingling

Memory Anchor

Signs are seen. Symptoms are said.

Example: Herpes Simplex Cold Sore

Finding	Sign or Symptom?
Redness	sign
Clear fluid-filled vesicles	sign
Tingling	symptom
Discomfort	symptom
Feeling tired	symptom

9. Local vs Systemic Manifestations

Term	Meaning	Examples
Local	confined to disease site	redness, swelling, bruising, localized pain
Systemic	affects whole body	fever, lethargy, body aches, high blood pressure

Example

A small infected cut may cause:

local redness
local swelling
local warmth
local pain

If infection spreads, patient may develop:

fever
chills
malaise
tachycardia
systemic inflammation

Exam Trap

Localized redness around a wound is local.

Fever from that wound infection is systemic.

10. Acute, Subacute, Chronic

Term	Meaning	Example
Acute	abrupt onset; lasts days to a few months	common cold
Subacute	between acute and chronic in duration/severity	lingering infection or inflammation
Chronic	gradual/insidious onset; usually longer than 6 months	diabetes, arthritis, hypertension

Acute Disease

Acute disease usually has:

sudden onset
short duration
obvious symptoms
possible full recovery

Example:

common cold lasting 10–14 days

Chronic Disease

Chronic disease usually has:

gradual onset
long duration
periods of stability and flare-ups
need for long-term management

Examples:

diabetes mellitus
rheumatoid arthritis
hypertension
chronic kidney disease

Subacute Disease

Subacute falls between acute and chronic.

Think:

“Not sudden and short like acute, but not long-term like chronic.”

11. Insidious, Remission, Exacerbation

Term	Meaning	Example
Insidious	gradual onset; develops slowly	hypertension developing over years
Remission	symptom-free or reduced-symptom period	rheumatoid arthritis symptoms calm down
Exacerbation	flare-up or worsening of symptoms	asthma attack after pollen exposure

Asthma Example

Precipitating factors for asthma exacerbation include:

exercise
cold weather
upper respiratory infection
stress
dust/dust mites
pollen
animal dander
mold

Exam Trap

If asthma symptoms worsen after exposure to pollen, the pollen is a:

precipitating factor

Not the diagnosis. Not the pathogenesis. Not necessarily the etiology.

12. Asymptomatic Disease

Asymptomatic

Asymptomatic means the disease is present, but the person has no noticeable symptoms.

Examples

high blood pressure
early cancer
early diabetes
some infections
abnormal Pap smear findings

Why screening matters

Screening catches disease before symptoms appear.

Examples:

Pap smear
mammogram
blood pressure screening
colonoscopy
blood glucose testing

Critical thinking

A patient can be asymptomatic and still have disease.

Do not assume:

“No symptoms = no disease.”

That is wrong.

13. Diagnosis, Prognosis, Morbidity, Mortality

Diagnosis

A diagnosis is the label for the disease after evaluating:

signs
symptoms
history
labs
imaging
diagnostic tests

Prognosis

A prognosis is the predicted outcome.

Prognosis Type	Meaning
Excellent	likely full recovery
Poor	high risk for complications, disability, or death

Morbidity

Morbidity means disease-related complications or negative outcomes that affect quality of life.

Examples:

paralysis after stroke
kidney failure from diabetes
chronic pain from arthritis
impaired mobility after fracture

Mortality

Mortality means death.

Memory Anchor

Morbidity = messed-up quality of life.
Mortality = death.

14. Individual Health vs Population Health

Individual Health

Individual health focuses on one patient.

The chapter emphasizes:

Treat the person first, health problem second.

So instead of saying:

“the diabetic”
“the stroke patient”
“the fracture in room 202”

Say:

“the patient with diabetes”
“the patient who had a stroke”
“the patient in room 202 with a skull fracture”

Why this matters

A person is not their diagnosis.

Health includes:

body
mind
spirit
emotions
psychology
culture
personal perception

Health-Illness Continuum

Health and illness are dynamic, meaning they can change over time.

A person may:

have a diagnosis but feel healthy
have no diagnosis but feel ill
feel well one day and worse the next

Critical thinking

Nurses must assess both:

objective disease data
patient’s subjective experience

Both matter.

15. Population Health and Epidemiology

Epidemiology

Epidemiology is the study of disease in populations.

It helps identify:

where disease is common
who is affected
why it affects that group
how to reduce spread
how to reduce morbidity and mortality

Incidence vs Prevalence

Term	Meaning	Think
Incidence	number of new cases in a time period	new cases
Prevalence	total number of existing cases at a time	existing cases

Memory Anchor

Incidence = incoming cases.
Prevalence = present cases.

Example

If 100 people are newly diagnosed with asthma this year:

that is incidence

If 5,000 people in a city currently live with asthma:

that is prevalence

Endemic, Epidemic, Pandemic

Term	Meaning	Example
Endemic	predictable/stable disease presence in an area	malaria in certain regions
Epidemic	sudden increase above expected rate	measles outbreak
Pandemic	epidemic spread across continents	COVID-19

Memory Anchor

Endemic = expected
Epidemic = exploding cases
Pandemic = planet-wide spread

16. Prevention Levels

This is easy exam material. Know it cold.

Primary Prevention

Primary prevention happens before disease or injury occurs.

Goal:

Prevent the problem from happening.

Examples:

vaccines
bike helmets
seat belts
hand hygiene
smoking prevention
healthy diet
exercise
sunscreen

Memory Anchor

Primary = prevent first.

Secondary Prevention

Secondary prevention is early detection and early treatment.

Goal:

Find disease early before it worsens.

Examples:

mammogram
Pap smear
blood pressure screening
testicular self-exam
colonoscopy
blood glucose screening

Memory Anchor

Secondary = screening.

Tertiary Prevention

Tertiary prevention happens after diagnosis.

Goal:

Reduce complications, slow progression, improve function.

Examples:

physical therapy after stroke
cardiac rehab after myocardial infarction
diabetes foot care education
occupational therapy after injury
fall prevention after osteoporosis diagnosis

Memory Anchor

Tertiary = treatment + rehab after diagnosis.

Prevention Table

Scenario	Prevention Level
Flu vaccine	Primary
Mammogram	Secondary
Stroke rehabilitation	Tertiary
Helmet use	Primary
Blood pressure screening	Secondary
Diabetic foot care after diagnosis	Tertiary
Physical therapy after fracture	Tertiary
Smoking cessation before COPD develops	Primary
Colonoscopy to detect early cancer	Secondary

17. Evidence-Based Practice

Evidence-Based Practice

Evidence-based practice means healthcare decisions are based on:

current research
clinical expertise
best available evidence
patient needs and situation

Critical thinking

Evidence-based practice prevents care from being based only on:

habit
opinion
outdated practice
“we’ve always done it this way”

18. Human Variation in Pathophysiology

The chapter says health professionals must consider:

sex
age
locale
socioeconomic status
cultural factors

These can influence:

disease risk
disease presentation
prevention strategies
access to care
treatment outcomes

Important warning

Do not stereotype.

Use population data to guide thinking, but assess the individual patient.

Example:

A disease may be more common in older adults, but that does not mean every older adult has it.

19. Functional Concepts of Altered Health

The book uses concepts to organize disease processes.

Instead of memorizing every disease separately, you learn major patterns.

Major functional concepts include:

altered cells and tissues
inflammation
immunity
infection
genetic and developmental disorders
altered cellular proliferation and differentiation
altered fluid/electrolyte balance
altered acid-base balance
altered neural transmission
altered mood and behavior
altered sensory function and pain perception
altered hormonal/metabolic processes
altered reproductive function
altered ventilation and diffusion
altered tissue perfusion
altered nutrition
altered elimination
degenerative changes in aging

Why this matters

This is how you critically think on exams.

Example:

If you understand inflammation, you can apply it to:

burns
arthritis
infection
tissue injury
pancreatitis
sinusitis

You do not need to memorize every disease as a separate random box.

20. High-Yield Concept Map

Disease Thinking Framework

Question	Term
What caused it?	Etiology
How did it develop?	Pathogenesis
What makes the patient vulnerable?	Risk factors
What triggered the symptoms now?	Precipitating factor
What does the patient show/report?	Clinical manifestations
What can be observed/measured?	Signs
What does the patient feel/report?	Symptoms
Is it confined to one area?	Local
Is the whole body affected?	Systemic
What is the disease label?	Diagnosis
What is the predicted outcome?	Prognosis
What reduces cause/symptoms?	Treatment
What prevents disease/complications?	Prevention

21. Critical Thinking Examples

Example 1: Asthma

A patient has asthma and develops shortness of breath after exposure to pollen.

Concept	Application
Disease	asthma
Precipitating factor	pollen
Clinical manifestation	shortness of breath
Symptom	patient reports chest tightness
Sign	wheezing heard on auscultation
Exacerbation	asthma flare-up
Prevention	avoid triggers, use prescribed control therapy

Example 2: Hospital-Acquired Infection

A patient is admitted for surgery and later develops an infection from exposure in the hospital.

Concept	Application
Disease	infection
Etiology	pathogen
Type	nosocomial
Prevention	hand hygiene, infection control

Example 3: Catheter-Associated UTI

A patient develops a UTI after urinary catheter insertion.

Concept	Application
Disease	urinary tract infection
Cause	catheter introduced bacteria or increased infection risk
Type	iatrogenic
Clinical manifestations	dysuria, fever, cloudy urine
Prevention	sterile technique, remove catheter ASAP

Example 4: Diabetes

A patient has pancreatic beta cell destruction years before symptoms appear.

Concept	Application
Pathogenesis	gradual beta cell destruction
Clinical manifestations	hyperglycemia, polyuria, polydipsia
Diagnosis	diabetes mellitus
Prognosis	depends on control and complications
Tertiary prevention	prevent kidney, eye, nerve complications

22. Mnemonics

Etiology vs Pathogenesis

E = Explanation of cause
P = Process of disease

Signs vs Symptoms

Signs are Seen.
Symptoms are Said.

Incidence vs Prevalence

Incidence = Incoming.
Prevalence = Present.

Prevention

Primary = Prevent
Secondary = Screen
Tertiary = Treat/rehab

Local vs Systemic

Local = Location-limited
Systemic = Spreads through system

Morbidity vs Mortality

Morbidity = complications
Mortality = death

23. Common Exam Traps

Trap 1: Confusing etiology and pathogenesis

Wrong thinking:

“Pathogenesis is the cause.”

Correct:

Etiology is the cause. Pathogenesis is the development/process.

Trap 2: Thinking symptoms are measurable

Wrong:

“Pain is a sign.”

Correct:

Pain is a symptom because the patient reports it.

Trap 3: Thinking asymptomatic means healthy

Wrong:

“No symptoms means no disease.”

Correct:

A patient can have disease without symptoms. Screening matters.

Trap 4: Confusing secondary and tertiary prevention

Wrong:

“Physical therapy after stroke is secondary prevention.”

Correct:

Physical therapy after stroke is tertiary prevention because the disease/injury already happened.

Trap 5: Confusing incidence and prevalence

Wrong:

“Prevalence means new cases.”

Correct:

Incidence = new cases. Prevalence = all current cases.

24. Put This in Your Notes

Chapter 1 Must-Know Facts

Pathophysiology studies mechanisms of disease and altered function.
Anatomy = structure; physiology = function.
Structure and function are connected; when structure changes, function changes.
Homeostasis is the body’s dynamic internal balance.
Disease occurs when cells, tissues, organs, or systems have impaired function.
Etiology is the cause of disease.
Pathogenesis is the development/progression of disease.
Idiopathic means unknown cause.
Risk factors increase vulnerability but do not guarantee disease.
Precipitating factors trigger clinical manifestations.
Clinical manifestations include signs and symptoms.
Signs are objective. Symptoms are subjective.
Local manifestations stay at the site; systemic manifestations affect the whole body.
Acute = abrupt and short-term.
Chronic = gradual/insidious and long-term.
Remission = symptoms decrease/disappear.
Exacerbation = symptoms flare.
Asymptomatic means disease may be present without noticeable symptoms.
Diagnosis labels the disease.
Prognosis predicts outcome.
Morbidity means complications/quality-of-life impact.
Mortality means death.
Incidence means new cases.
Prevalence means existing cases.
Endemic is expected/stable.
Epidemic is a sudden increase.
Pandemic spreads across continents.
Primary prevention prevents disease.
Secondary prevention detects disease early.
Tertiary prevention reduces complications after diagnosis.
Evidence-based practice uses current research and expert knowledge.

25. One-Line Memory Anchor

Pathophysiology asks: what caused the disease, how did it develop, what does it look like, how bad can it get, and how do we prevent or reduce harm?

26. Mini Practice Questions

Question 1

A patient reports chest pain and nausea. The nurse notes diaphoresis and elevated blood pressure. Which findings are symptoms?

A. Chest pain and nausea
B. Diaphoresis and elevated blood pressure
C. Elevated blood pressure only
D. Diaphoresis only

Answer: A

Rationale: Chest pain and nausea are symptoms because the patient reports them. Diaphoresis and elevated blood pressure are signs because they are observable/measurable.

Question 2

A patient develops a urinary tract infection after a urinary catheter is inserted. Which term best describes this?

A. Idiopathic
B. Iatrogenic
C. Endemic
D. Asymptomatic

Answer: B

Rationale: Iatrogenic disease is an unintended result of medical treatment. The catheter contributed to the UTI.

Question 3

A nurse teaches a patient to wear a helmet while biking. Which level of prevention is this?

A. Primary
B. Secondary
C. Tertiary
D. Rehabilitation

Answer: A

Rationale: Primary prevention prevents disease or injury before it happens.

Question 4

A mammogram is performed to detect breast cancer early. Which level of prevention is this?

A. Primary
B. Secondary
C. Tertiary
D. Palliative

Answer: B

Rationale: Secondary prevention is early detection through screening.

Question 5

A patient with rheumatoid arthritis has no symptoms for several months, then develops joint pain and swelling again. The symptom-free period is called:

A. Exacerbation
B. Remission
C. Incidence
D. Etiology

Answer: B

Rationale: Remission is a period when symptoms decrease or disappear. Exacerbation is the flare-up.

Question 6

The nurse is reviewing statistics showing the number of new tuberculosis cases diagnosed this year. Which term applies?

A. Prevalence
B. Incidence
C. Morbidity
D. Prognosis

Answer: B

Rationale: Incidence refers to new cases in a given time period.

Question 7

Which statement best describes pathogenesis?

A. The cause of a disease
B. The predicted outcome of a disease
C. The development and progression of a disease
D. The treatment used to reduce symptoms

Answer: C

Rationale: Pathogenesis explains how the disease begins, develops, and progresses.

Question 8

A disease has no known cause. Which term applies?

A. Idiopathic
B. Nosocomial
C. Iatrogenic
D. Endemic

Answer: A

Rationale: Idiopathic means the cause is unknown.

Question 9

A patient develops fever, chills, and generalized body aches from an infection. These are:

A. Local manifestations
B. Systemic manifestations
C. Asymptomatic findings
D. Precipitating factors

Answer: B

Rationale: Fever, chills, and generalized aches affect the whole body, so they are systemic.

Question 10

A patient receives physical therapy after a stroke to regain function. Which level of prevention is this?

A. Primary
B. Secondary
C. Tertiary
D. Epidemiologic

Answer: C

Rationale: Tertiary prevention focuses on rehabilitation and prevention of complications after diagnosis or injury.