05 - Korea [1949-1953] - The Korean War

Initial Conflict and the Great Retreat

• Summer 1950 Context: The United States led the United Nations into a military conflict in Asia to combat the spread of communism. By winter, under the pressure of an attack from Chinese communist forces, United Nations (UN) troops entered into a full-scale retreat.

• The Severity of the Route: The retreat was compared to Napoleon’s exit from Russia. Troops fled "headlong, helter-skelter, pell-mell" in an attempt to reach Pusan or return to Japan. This transition marked the shift of the Cold War into a "hot war."

Historical Background and the Division of Korea

• Japanese Occupation (1910–1945): The Japanese army occupied Korea for a period of $35$ years. During this time, they imposed a Japanese lifestyle, forced the use of the Japanese language, and implemented Japanese law on the Korean population.

• Liberation (August 1945): At the end of the Second World War, the Japanese surrendered. Russian and American troops liberated the peninsula, meeting in a manner similar to their convergence in Germany.

• The 38th Parallel: As occupying powers, the Soviet Union and the United States agreed to divide Korea along the 38th Parallel. This was intended as a temporary measure. South of the divide, the Americans held control; the Republic of Korea (ROK) was formed through a partnership between the Pentagon and the State Department.

Political Leadership in North and South

• Syngman Rhee (South Korea): American generals installed Rhee, a hardline anti-communist.

  • Characterization: Described as possessing a deceptive charm; he was tough, absolutely unforgiving, and very patriotic. He did not possess the sweetness his appearance suggested.

  • Inauguration: Rhee was appointed as the first president of the Republic of Korea in 1948, following which American troops withdrew.

• Kim Il Sung (North Korea): The Russians established a communist regime via a network of people's committees north of the 38th Parallel.

  • Background: Kim Il Sung had spent the war years in the Soviet Union and was groomed for power. He was seen as a handsome, smiling, and popular figure, regarded by many as a national hero of the Korean people.

  • Inauguration: The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) was proclaimed with Kim as president. Following Soviet troop withdrawal, Kim aimed to unify Korea under communism.

The Road to Invasion

• Soviet Involvement (1949): In March 1949, Kim Il Sung traveled to Moscow to seek Joseph Stalin's permission to invade the South. Stalin initially rejected the request, as he was preoccupied with the Berlin Crisis.

• Shift in Global Power (Late 1949): Two major events transformed the international situation:

  • The Soviet Union detonated its first atomic bomb.

  • The communist revolution in China succeeded under Mao Zedong, who proclaimed the People's Republic of China.

• The Communist Alliance: A treaty of friendship between Mao and Stalin created a global communist alliance, effectively opening a second front in the Cold War in Asia.

• Approval (April 1950): Confident that the U.S. would not respond to events in Asia, Stalin finally gave Kim Il Sung approval to invade.

The Outbreak of War: June 1950

• The Assault (June 25, 1950): The North Korean army launched a surprise assault on a Sunday morning.

  • Military Strength: The North flooded South Korea with $10$ combat divisions, equipped with Russian tanks and artillery, and directed by Soviet advisors.

  • Motivation: North Korean soldiers believed they were fighting for their motherland, their people, and their leader to liberate the South.

• The Response in Washington: News reached the State Department on Saturday evening (U.S. time). There was an immediate sense that action was necessary, though no actual contingency plan for a North Korean invasion of the South existed.

• Diplomatic Urgency: President Syngman Rhee called American officials at midnight, pleading for help. The South Korean ambassador met with Assistant Secretary Dean Rusk, emphasizing that the matter concerned the whole world.

United Nations Mobilization

• UN Security Council Action: The Security Council met for an emergency session.

  • The Soviet Boycott: Moscow was boycotting the UN at the time because the organization refused to admit communist China. This absence allowed the U.S. to pass resolutions without a Soviet veto.

  • Resolution: The Council condemned North Korean aggression (passed by $9$ votes to $1$, with one abstention). Two days later, they voted to create a UN military force to defend South Korea.

• Coalition Force: Soldiers from $16$ nations joined the fight under the UN flag. Truman addressed the nation, stating that while Korea was thousands of miles away, the communist invasion was a warning of global aggression.

• Domestic Support: Initially, the war was popular in the U.S. There was a strong desire to "stem the tide of communism."

Initial Defeats and the Inchon Gamble

• Douglas MacArthur: The Allied supreme commander in Tokyo was appointed to lead the UN forces. Described as having a tremendous ego and being treated as infallible after his victory in the Pacific.

• State of U.S. Forces: Occupation troops in Japan were unready for combat, having lived a life of leisure. Task Force Smith was sent with only athletic equipment and old WWII gear, expecting a show of force that would last only $6$ weeks.

• Early Losses: The South Korean army was in disarray, with two divisions joining refugees. Seoul fell in just $3$ days. American lines collapsed against North Korean tanks due to a lack of effective anti-tank weaponry.

• The Inchon Landing (September 15, 1950): With UN forces trapped in the Pusan enclave, MacArthur launched a seaborne invasion $150$ miles behind enemy lines at the port of Inchon.

  • Conditions: The fleet was the largest since WWII. Landing conditions were described as terrible, involving scaling a stone seawall amidst rain and smoke from bombardments.

  • Success: Within two weeks, UN troops recaptured Seoul, though $50,000$ civilians died in the crossfire. MacArthur subsequently reinstated Syngman Rhee.

Escalation: Crossing the Parallel and Chinese Intervention

• Drive for Unification: South Korean and UN troops crossed the 38th Parallel, aiming to unify the peninsula. On October 19, 1950, Pyongyang fell—the only communist capital captured by the West during the Cold War.

• Chinese Alarm: The Chinese leadership feared that a UN advance to the Yalu River would lead to an invasion of the Chinese mainland. Mao Zedong, urged by Stalin and seeking to assert Chinese power, decided to intervene.

• MacArthur’s Miscalculation: At a meeting on Wake Island, MacArthur assured President Truman that there was no possibility of China entering the war. He even refused to stay for lunch with the President.

• The Chinese Attack (November 1950): As the U.S. army paused for Thanksgiving (complete with roast turkey and cranberry sauce), $300,000$ Chinese "People’s Volunteers" attacked. They used bugles to create a chilling effect and signal their charges.

The "Bug Out" and the Threat of Atomic War

• Disastrous Retreat: UN forces were thrown back across North Korea, abandoning equipment in a retreat known as "bug out fever."

  • Environmental Hazards: Temperatures dropped to $-25^{\circ}$ below zero. Weapons failed to fire, and soldiers were described as feeling utterly inadequate.

• The Atomic Option: At a press conference, journalists pressed Truman on the potential use of the atomic bomb. This caused international alarm, leading British Prime Minister Clement Attlee to fly to Washington for crisis talks. Truman later assured him there were no plans to use the weapons.

• Shift in Leadership: General Matthew B. Ridgway was appointed as field commander, successfully eradicating the "defeatism" of the Eighth Army.

The Air War and Soviet Secrecy

• U.S. Air Power: The U.S. enjoyed air supremacy, using F-9F Panthers and napalm for ground attacks.

• The MiG-15 Menace: The introduction of Russian-built MiG-15s with Russian pilots posed a challenge.

  • Secrecy: The Soviet government demanded complete secrecy to avoid direct conflict with the U.S.; pilots were ordered to never let the enemy know they were Russians.

• The F-86 Sabre: The deployment of the Sabre jets allowed the U.S. to win back mastery of the skies.

The Removal of MacArthur and the Stalemate

• MacArthur vs. Truman: MacArthur called for the bombing of Chinese cities and pursuit of war into mainland China. Truman, fearing a third world war, relieved MacArthur of command in 1951.

• Stalemate (Summer 1951): The war settled into a stalemate at the hills of Korea, roughly at the original 38th Parallel. Armistice talks began in July 1951 but took two years to conclude.

• POW Crisis:

  • Mortality: One in three American POWs died during the first winter from dysentery, malnutrition, and beatings.

  • Indoctrination: The Chinese organized daily lectures to indoctrinate prisoners against "war-profiteering mothers on Wall Street."

  • The Stumbling Block: A major issue in truce talks was whether prisoners should be forcibly repatriated. Nearly half of the $130,000$ communist prisoners held by the UN chose not to return home.

Domestic and Regional Impacts

• U.S. Public Sentiment: Public interest in the war waned. Unlike Vietnam, it was not televised, and newspapers often relegated daily coverage to small columns.

• Japan’s Economic Boom: The war galvanized the Japanese economy through $3.5$ billion dollars in spending for dockyards and shipyards. This period marked the beginning of Japan’s global dominance in electronics.

• Devastation of North Korea: American bombers dropped as much explosive weight on North Korea as they had on Germany in WWII. Pyongyang was reported as being $100\%$ destroyed, with an estimated $2,000,000$ northern civilians killed.

The End of the War and its Legacy

• Political Shifts (1952–1953):

  • Dwight D. Eisenhower won the 1952 U.S. election on the pledge to end the war.

  • Joseph Stalin died in March 1953; his successors were eager to end the conflict.

• The Armistice (July 27, 1953): A ceasefire was signed at Panmunjom. Syngman Rhee opposed the truce and refused to sign it.

• Prisoner Exchange: $75,000$ communist prisoners and $12,000$ UN prisoners were set free.

• Casualty Statistics:

  • United States: $54,000$ dead.

  • UN Allies: $3,000$ dead from $15$ other nations.

  • China: Estimated $500,000$ dead.

  • Korea: $3,000,000$ killed, wounded, or missing; $5,000,000$ left homeless.

• Final Conclusion: The war ended without a clear victory for either side. Communism was contained in the South, which Mao claimed as a demonstration that China could not be bullied, yet Korea remains divided by the same line decades later.