unit 7 review
7.1 ——— 7.3
1. Pre-Industrial Society
Cottage Industries: Before the Industrial Revolution, goods were handmade at home in small, rural communities.
Subsistence focus: Production was focused on survival and local trade rather than mass profit.
Demographic Transition Model (DTM): This era corresponds to Stage 1 of the DTM, characterized by high birth and death rates and a lack of stable food or medicine.
2. The Industrial Revolution
Origins: It began in the 1700s in Great Britain, which served as the "hearth".
Power Sources: Early factories were powered by water wheels (hence the location near rivers) and later by coal via the steam engine.
Key Advancements:
Steel: Allowed for skyscrapers and more intensive urban living.
Transportation: Steam engines and steel enabled the creation of railroads, which were vital for moving food to growing cities.
3. Fordism and Mass Production
Assembly Line: Popularized by Henry Ford, this system utilized unskilled labor where each worker performed a single, specialized task.
Standardization: Products became uniform, making them cheaper to produce and easier to repair with interchangeable parts.
Societal Impacts:
Increased demand for a skilled workforce led to the rise of public education.
Schools eventually served as "daycare" once child labor laws were passed and both parents entered the workforce.
4. Diffusion of Industrialization
The revolution spread in waves due to distance decay (closer areas get technology first):
Wave 1: Anglo-America (North America).
Wave 2: Northwest Europe, eventually spreading to the southeast.
Wave 3: Latin America and Asia (mostly post-WWII after gaining independence).
Sub-Saharan Africa: Largely remains in the primary sector (farming/mining) and has not fully undergone an industrial revolution.
5. Economic Concepts & Theories
Sectors of the Economy:
Primary: Resource extraction (farming, mining).
Secondary: Manufacturing/factories.
Tertiary: Services (baristas, retail).
Quaternary: Knowledge-based services (research, management).
Quinary: High-level decision-making (CEOs, government agencies like the FDA).
Integration:
Vertical: One company controls every step of the "commodity chain" (e.g., harvesting to selling).
Horizontal: A company controls one specific step across multiple industries (e.g., a delivery service like FedEx).
Weber’s Least Cost Theory: Predicts factory locations based on minimizing costs.
Bulk-Gaining: The finished product is heavier/larger (e.g., cars, soda). Factories locate near the market to save on shipping costs.
Bulk-Reducing: The finished product is lighter than the raw materials (e.g., paper, copper). Factories locate near the resources.
1. Economic Growth vs. Development
Growth: Refers to a country or economy getting larger in numerical terms (e.g., GDP).
Development: Refers to the "betterment" or improvement in the quality of life for citizens.
Example: In the 1970s, China’s economy grew exponentially due to its massive workforce, but the average quality of life (development) did not improve during that specific period.
2. Measuring Economic Activity
The UN uses several metrics to gauge economic health, often calculated "per capita" (per person) for accuracy:
GDP (Gross Domestic Product): Total economic activity within a country's borders, regardless of the workers' nationality.
GNP (Gross National Product): Economic activity of a country's citizens and businesses, both at home and abroad.
GNI (Gross National Income): A combination of GDP and GNP that tracks total income and production; this is the primary economic metric used by the UN.
PPP (Purchasing Power Parity): An adjustment made to GNI to account for differences in the cost of living between countries (e.g., $900 in Chad vs. $900 in the US).
Informal Economy: Economic activity that is not taxed or regulated (e.g., babysitting, subsistence farming); these figures are not included in official GNI/GDP data.
3. Human Development Index (HDI)
The UN ranks countries on a scale of 0 to 1 based on three key categories:
A Long and Healthy Life: Measured by life expectancy.
Knowledge: Measured by mean years of schooling and literacy rates.
Standard of Living: Measured by GNI per capita (PPP).
HDI Classifications:
Very High (Closer to 1.0)
High
Medium
Low (Closer to 0)
4. Health and Gender Indicators
Life Expectancy: The US often ranks lower (around 22nd) among developed nations due to the lack of universal healthcare.
Gender Inequality Index (GII): Measures the disparity between men and women. Unlike HDI, a lower score (closer to 0) is better for GII, indicating more equality.
Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Higher in less developed countries (LDCs) because children are often needed for labor and women may have limited access to education or healthcare.
5. Occupational Structure
Development levels can be identified by the percentage of the workforce in different sectors:
MDC (More Developed): High percentage in services (e.g., 80%), low in agriculture (e.g., 5%).
NIC (Newly Industrialized): A mix, with growing industrial and service sectors.
LDC (Less Developed): High percentage in agriculture (e.g., 70%), very few in services.
LT7.4 – Gender Equality & Development
📊 How We Measure Gender Equality
Maternal Mortality Rate — the number of women who die from pregnancy-related causes per 100,000 live births. High rates are found in Sub-Saharan Africa and Afghanistan due to lack of healthcare access and geographic isolation from hospitals.
Adolescent Birth Rate — tracks births among young mothers, which indicates how early girls are being married and pulled out of school. Younger pregnancies also increase complications, contributing to higher maternal mortality.
📚 Gender Gaps in Education
Primary & secondary school: boys slightly outnumber girls globally.
Tertiary (college): women now surpass men in enrollment — but this is concentrated in the developed world.
The disparity in job types (women steered toward caregiving/teaching, men toward trades/engineering) helps explain why women dominate college attendance yet still earn less overall.
🏛 Women in Parliament
Only 3 countries have more women than men in parliament: Rwanda (post-genocide male population vacuum), Cuba (political upheaval + male out-migration), and Nicaragua (passed a 50/50 law in the early 2000s). Most of the developed world still has more men than women in elected positions.
💼 Labor Force Participation
Measured as female-to-male ratio; over 100% means more women than men are working.
Developed countries approach or exceed 100%.
Informal sector work (home-based services, subsistence farming) is not counted — which undercounts women's economic contributions in the developing world.
📏 The Two Key Indexes
Key difference: The GII includes an empowerment component (parliamentary seats); the GDI does not. Latin America scores well on GDI but poorly on GII because of weak female political representation and limited healthcare/contraception access (linked to Catholic cultural influence).
🔄 Women's Roles as Countries Develop
💰 The Gender Pay Gap
The gap exists primarily because of job type differences, not just unequal pay for the same job. Women dominate lower-paying fields (childcare, healthcare support, administrative work). Women also rarely reach senior management (the US is at ~40% female managers). Russia is a noted exception where true same-job pay discrimination exists.
🌱 Microloans / Microfinance
Small loans from nonprofits given to women in the developing world who lack collateral to access traditional bank loans.
Allow women to start small businesses (sewing, dry cleaning, etc.).
Have a high repayment rate.
Women are more likely than men to reinvest earnings into their children's education and wellbeing.
Limitation: Too small-scale to develop an entire country on their own; impacts may take 20–40 years to show at a national level.
This presentation, titled "LT 7.5: Theories of Development," provides a comprehensive overview of the key models used in AP Human Geography to explain how countries develop economically.
Here is a breakdown of the core theories covered in the slides:
1. Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth
This is a structuralist model that suggests all countries follow a similar five-stage path toward modernization:
Stage 1: Traditional Society: Based on subsistence agriculture and limited technology.
Stage 2: Preconditions for Take-off: External investments and infrastructure development begin.
Stage 3: Take-off: Rapid growth in a few industrial sectors (like textiles).
Stage 4: Drive to Maturity: Technology diffuses to all sectors; industrial base widens.
Stage 5: High Mass Consumption: Shift toward service industries and consumer goods.
2. Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory
Unlike Rostow, Wallerstein uses a dependency model, arguing that the global economy is a single system where countries are interdependent but unequal:
Core: Highly developed MDCs that dominate global trade (e.g., USA, Japan).
Semi-Periphery: Countries with intermediate development, often industrializing (e.g., Brazil, India, China).
Periphery: LDCs that provide raw materials and low-cost labor to the core (e.g., many nations in Sub-Saharan Africa).
3. Dependency Theory
This theory posits that the "underdevelopment" of certain nations is not a natural stage (as Rostow suggests) but is actively caused by their historical and current relationship with wealthier nations. It emphasizes how resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states.
4. Commodity Dependence
The slides likely highlight the risks for countries that rely heavily on a single export (like oil or coffee). Commodity-dependent nations are highly vulnerable to global price fluctuations, which can destabilize their entire economy.
Key Vocabulary for the Exam:
Structuralist Models: Theories that treat economic disparities as features of the global system that are difficult to change.
Liberal Models: Theories (like Rostow’s) that assume all countries are capable of developing if they follow certain steps.
Neo-colonialism: The use of economic or political pressure to control or influence other countries, especially former dependencies.
LT 7.5: Theories of Development
Here is a breakdown of the core theories covered in the slides:
1. Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth
This is a structuralist model that suggests all countries follow a similar five-stage path toward modernization:
Stage 1: Traditional Society: Based on subsistence agriculture and limited technology.
Stage 2: Preconditions for Take-off: External investments and infrastructure development begin.
Stage 3: Take-off: Rapid growth in a few industrial sectors (like textiles).
Stage 4: Drive to Maturity: Technology diffuses to all sectors; industrial base widens.
Stage 5: High Mass Consumption: Shift toward service industries and consumer goods.
2. Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory
Unlike Rostow, Wallerstein uses a dependency model, arguing that the global economy is a single system where countries are interdependent but unequal:
Core: Highly developed MDCs that dominate global trade (e.g., USA, Japan).
Semi-Periphery: Countries with intermediate development, often industrializing (e.g., Brazil, India, China).
Periphery: LDCs that provide raw materials and low-cost labor to the core (e.g., many nations in Sub-Saharan Africa).
3. Dependency Theory
This theory posits that the "underdevelopment" of certain nations is not a natural stage (as Rostow suggests) but is actively caused by their historical and current relationship with wealthier nations. It emphasizes how resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states.
4. Commodity Dependence
The slides likely highlight the risks for countries that rely heavily on a single export (like oil or coffee). Commodity-dependent nations are highly vulnerable to global price fluctuations, which can destabilize their entire economy.
Key Vocabulary for the Exam:
Structuralist Models: Theories that treat economic disparities as features of the global system that are difficult to change.
Liberal Models: Theories (like Rostow’s) that assume all countries are capable of developing if they follow certain steps.
Neo-colonialism: The use of economic or political pressure to control or influence other countries, especially former dependencies.
Would you like me to create a study guide or a set of practice multiple-choice questions based on these specific theories?
LT 7.6 - 7.7
1. Sustainable Development
Sustainable development is the effort to improve the standard of living and economic status of people while protecting the environment for future generations.
The Goal: To reduce the negative impacts of industrialization (pollution, resource depletion) while still promoting economic growth.
Renewable vs. Non-renewable Resources: * Renewable: Sources that naturally replenish (solar, wind, hydroelectric).
Non-renewable: Finite resources that can be depleted (coal, oil, natural gas).
2. The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
The United Nations established 17 goals to be achieved by 2030 to create a more equitable and sustainable world. Key focuses include:
Social: Ending poverty, improving education, and achieving gender equality.
Economic: Decent work, economic growth, and responsible consumption/production.
Environmental: Clean water, affordable clean energy, and climate action.
3. Ecotourism
Ecotourism is a form of tourism based on the natural environment, intended to support conservation efforts and observe wildlife.
Purpose: To provide a sustainable income for local populations without destroying the natural resources they rely on.
Examples: Rainforest tours in Costa Rica, safari trips in Kenya, or visiting the Galapagos Islands.
Benefits:
Conservation: Revenue goes toward protecting endangered species and habitats.
Education: Tourists learn about environmental issues.
Local Economy: Creates jobs for locals (guides, hospitality) that don't involve resource extraction like logging or mining.
Challenges: * Too many tourists can still damage the ecosystem ("loving it to death").
Ensuring that the money actually stays within the local community rather than going to international hotel chains.
4. Environmental Challenges of Development
As countries develop, they face specific environmental hurdles:
Pollution: Industrial waste in water and air.
Climate Change: Increased CO2 emissions from factories and transportation.
Resource Depletion: Over-farming, deforestation, and over-mining to fuel economic growth.
5. Balancing Development (MDCs vs. LDCs)
MDCs (More Developed Countries): Often have the technology to implement "green" energy but have a history of high consumption.
LDCs (Less Developed Countries): Face a "catch-22"—they need industrialization to pull people out of poverty, but that industrialization often causes significant environmental damage.
Study Tip: For your quiz, make sure you can explain the Multiplier Effect of ecotourism—how one ecotourism job can create additional jobs in the local community, leading to sustainable regional growth.
1. Why Manufacturing Stays in the Developed World
While many factories move for cheap labor, some stay in developed nations (MDCs) due to proximity to market.
Bulk-Gaining Industries: Products that gain weight or volume during production (e.g., soda bottling) locate near markets to minimize the high cost of transporting heavy finished goods.
Single-Market Industries: Specialized manufacturers (e.g., high-end couture fashion) locate near their specific, often singular, consumer base to reduce transportation costs.
Just-in-Time (JIT) Delivery: Parts arrive at factories exactly when needed for assembly and immediate shipment to the market. This eliminates the need for expensive warehouse space near high-cost urban markets.
Risk: Any disruption in the transportation "choke points" (like the Suez Canal blockage) can shut down the entire production line.
Perishable Products: Goods with a short "shelf life" (e.g., daily newspapers) must be manufactured at the market to be consumed before they "perish".
Skilled Labor: High-tech industries (e.g., semiconductor manufacturing) stay in MDCs to access a highly educated workforce.
2. Footloose Industries
These are industries where transportation costs for both resources and finished products are either equal or irrelevant, allowing them to locate anywhere.
Examples: * Diamonds: The raw stones are heavy (bulk-reducing), but the finished gems are so valuable they require expensive security (bulk-gaining). These costs cancel each other out.
Computer Chips: Fragile and valuable finished products balance out the bulk-reducing nature of their raw materials.
Services: Call centers are footloose because they rely on digital communication rather than physical transportation.
3. Shift from Fordism to Post-Fordism
Fordism: Mass production for local/regional markets. Companies were often "vertically integrated," controlling the entire supply chain from raw materials to sales.
Post-Fordism: Focused on mass customization and global demand (e.g., fast fashion). It relies on highly integrated global supply chains where different steps of production occur in the cheapest possible locations.
This has led to shorter product lifecycles and increased global consumption.
4. Key Economic Groups and Growth Poles
The BRICS: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa—leaders in the developing world focused on manufacturing.
The Asian Tigers: South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. These nations rapidly industrialized and have moved into high-tech and service-based economies.
Growth Poles: Areas in MDCs (like Silicon Valley or the area around MIT) where a "basic industry" or university attracts many "non-basic" support industries, creating a multiplier effect of economic growth.
Islands of Development: In the developing world, governments may only have enough money to develop one city (e.g., Lagos, Nigeria), creating a developed "island" surrounded by rural, developing areas.
5. International Investment & Debt
Neocolonialism: Developed nations (like China) invest billions in infrastructure (railroads, dams) in developing nations to secure access to raw materials and petroleum.
IMF (International Monetary Fund): Provides loans to developing countries. However, many countries (e.g., Argentina, Egypt) struggle to pay these back, trapping them in debt and the "periphery" of the world system.
FDI (Foreign Direct Investment): Direct investment by a country or company into another. It doesn't always have to be paid back like a loan but often involves giving up sovereignty or resource rights.
6. Impacts of Global Integration
Economic Restructuring: MDCs experience de-industrialization, leading to a decline in the middle class and a need to retrain factory workers for service jobs. This often widens the income gap.
Social Impacts: In the developing world, industrialization has increased gender equality as women gain economic independence through factory jobs, often delaying marriage and childbearing.
Environmental Impacts: MDCs see a regional decrease in carbon emissions because they offshored their factories. However, global emissions increase because developing nations often lack the strict environmental regulations found in MDCs.
LT 7.8 Sustainable Development
Sustainable development is defined as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It focuses on three core pillars:
Economic Growth: Ensuring businesses and economies remain viable.
Social Equity: Ensuring all people have access to resources and opportunities.
Environmental Protection: Minimizing the impact of human activity on the planet.
2. Key Challenges
The video highlights several factors that make sustainable development difficult to achieve:
Population Growth: As the global population increases, the demand for food, water, and energy rises.
Resource Depletion: Over-reliance on non-renewable resources (like fossil fuels) leads to scarcity.
Pollution and Climate Change: Industrialization has historically been linked to high carbon emissions and environmental degradation.
3. Strategies for Sustainability
To move toward a more sustainable future, the video suggests several strategies:
Renewable Energy: Shifting away from coal and oil toward wind, solar, and hydroelectric power.
Conservation: Protecting biodiversity and natural habitats to maintain ecosystem services.
Circular Economy: Reducing waste by designing products that can be reused, repaired, or recycled.
Sustainable Agriculture: Using farming techniques that protect soil health and reduce water consumption.
4. Global Goals
The video references international efforts, such as the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which serve as a blueprint for global cooperation. These goals include ending poverty, improving health and education, and tackling climate change.
Summary
The overarching message is that sustainable development is not just about environmentalism; it is a holistic approach to ensuring long-term prosperity and stability for humanity by living within the Earth's ecological limits.
Fossil Fuels: These are non-renewable resources derived from fossils buried underground that have condensed under high pressure over millions of years.
Coal: Primarily consumed in Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs) because it is used to power manufacturing factories.
Petroleum (Oil): Used primarily for transportation, especially private cars. The highest consumption rates are found in countries with large populations, such as the United States, China, and India.
Natural Gas: Highly versatile and used globally for heating and cooking in homes and businesses. Major users include Russia, the U.S., China, India, Canada, and Mexico.
Renewable Resources: These include water (hydroelectric), solar, wind, geothermal, and biofuels. Significant users include Brazil, Latin America, Europe, and Canada.
Biofuels: Derived from agricultural products like corn (ethanol) or sugar. While renewable, burning carbon-based biofuels still produces CO2 emissions.
Hydroelectric: Harnesses energy from rivers with fast-moving currents. Construction involves high upfront costs and can disrupt local ecosystems and fish migration.
Wind: Can be built almost anywhere but is criticized for being inconsistent and impacting bird populations.
Solar: Common in areas with high sunlight, such as near the equator, but the high upfront costs can be a barrier for developing countries.
Industrial Location Factors
Proximity to Market: Certain industries stay in the developed world to remain close to their consumer base.
Bulk Gaining Industries: Products that gain weight or volume during manufacturing (e.g., soda bottling) locate near the market to reduce transportation costs.
Single Market Industries: These sell to only one specialized market (e.g., high-end couture fashion in Europe) and locate nearby to cut costs.
Just-in-Time Delivery: A system where parts arrive at a factory exactly when needed for assembly and immediate shipment. This reduces the need for expensive warehouse space but requires a highly efficient and stable transportation network.
Perishable Products: Goods with a short shelf life, such as daily newspapers, must be produced at the market to be consumed in time.
Footloose Industries: These industries can locate anywhere because transportation costs for both raw materials and finished products are either very low or balanced. Examples include diamond and computer chip manufacturing, as well as digital services like call centers.
Economic Concepts
Fordism vs. Post-Fordism:
Fordism: Mass production of goods for local/regional markets, often involving one company controlling the entire supply chain.
Post-Fordism: Focused on mass customization and global demand. It relies on integrated global supply chains, outsourcing, and offshoring to find the cheapest production methods.
Rapid Development:
BRICS: Refers to Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa—leaders in the developing world focused on manufacturing.
Asian Tigers: Countries like South Korea that have experienced rapid industrialization and have transitioned into high-tech and service-oriented economies.