PSY231 Chapter 3 - Combating Hostile Forces of Nature

Hostile forces pose adaptive challenges to human survival, including:
- Climate: Variability in temperature and weather affecting living conditions.
- Harsh Weather: Extreme conditions that impact food sources and habitation.
- Food Shortages: Scarcity of nutritious food resources forces adaptations.
- Toxins, Diseases, Parasites: Biological threats requiring immunity and behavioral adaptations.
- Predators: Risks that necessitate defense strategies.
- Hostile Conspecifics: Interactions with other humans can also be threats (i.e., violent confrontations).

Folk Biology: Humans possess an innate way to categorize living organisms, distinguishing plants from animals (Atran, 1998).
This categorization aids ancestors in:
- Understanding what is safe to eat.
- Identifying toxins and nutritious items.
Capacity for classification serves as a cognitive mechanism for survival in challenging environments (Sperber & Hirshfeld, 2004).

Natural liking for food reflect cultural and social values, exemplified by practices among various cultures (e.g., Kwakiutl's banquets).
Symbolic Representations: Foods carry meanings associated with emotions and social status (e.g., phrases like "bitter disappointment").
In Central African cultures, failed food provision can lead to significant social consequences (Betzig, 1989).

Omnivore's Dilemma: Broad diet increases poisoning risk.
Taste Preferences:
- Humans and rats show preference for sweet foods as energy sources (Birch, 1999).
- Infants prefer sweet liquids, while adults, such as the Hadza, value high-calorie honey (Barbesque & Marlowe, 2009).

Avoidance of bitter/sour foods due to potential toxins (Krebs, 2009).
Neophobia: Strong aversion to new foods; infants need encouragement to try new flavors (Birch, 1999).

Physiological and Behavioral Adaptations
- Immune responses combat pathogens (e.g., inflammation).
- Behaviors (e.g., feelings of disgust) help prevent toxin entry.

Fever as a Response: Acts as a defense mechanism against infections.
- Treatment of fever sometimes prolongs illness (Kluger, 1991).
Iron Reduction during Infections: Body lowers iron levels to starve bacteria, leading to higher infection rates when iron is supplemented (Winberg, 1984; Profet, 1992).

Motivates avoidance, particularly towards contaminated stimuli.
Cultural Universality: Certain disgust elicitors (e.g., feces) are found across cultures (Rozin, 1996).
Gender differences in sensitivity to disgust; women tend to display higher sensitivity (Curtis et al., 2004).

Situations like parenting can lead to lower disgust levels towards contaminated items (Case et al., 2006).
Extreme conditions (e.g. famines) can instigate behaviors like cannibalism (Stoneking, 2003).

Notable historical famines (e.g., Russian famine 1921, Great Chinese Famine 1959-1961) highlight the impact of hostile forces on survival.

Heightened sensitivity to certain foods protects developing embryos (Profet, 1992).
Common Avoided Foods: Coffee, meat, alcohol - often harboring harmful pathogens.
Evidence shows connection between pregnancy sickness timing and fetal development (Profet, 1992).

The use of fire facilitated nutrient absorption, digestion, and eradication of pathogens.
The causal relationship between cooking and brain size expansion remains debated.

Historical reliance on spices before the advent of refrigeration to combat spoilage and pathogens (Billing & Sherman, 1998).
Antimicrobial Hypothesis: Use of spices is linked to food safety and preservation strategies.

Savanna Hypothesis: Humans show preference for savanna-like environments, believed to provide resources for survival (Kaplan, 1992).
Natural scenery contributes positively to health and psychological well-being (Ulrich, 1986).

Evolutionary predispositions towards fearing snakes, spiders, heights, and strangers contribute to survival (Lobue & Deloache, 2008).

Meat Eating: Significant portion of hunter-gatherer time devoted to hunting (Hewlett, 1991).
Hunting Hypothesis: Shift to large-game hunting spurred tool development and social behaviors.
Provisioning vs. Show-off Hypotheses: The dual roles of meat provision and mating strategies underpin indigenous hunting practices.

Proposed cognitive adaptations linked to gendered labor roles in hunting and gathering.
Women excel in object location memory; men excel in navigational tasks (Silverman & Philips, 1998).

Integrative understanding of adaptations for food selection, survival strategies, and food acquisition methods reveals complex interrelations aimed at overcoming hostile forces of nature.