Archaeology and the Bible

Iron Age IA — 1200–1150 BCE. Earliest Iron Age period after Late Bronze collapse.

Iron Age IB — 1150–1000 BCE. Period of Judges and early Israelite settlements.

Iron Age IIA — 1000–925 BCE. United Monarchy of David and Solomon.

Iron Age IIB — 925–720 BCE. Divided Monarchy period.

Iron Age IIC — 720–586 BCE. Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian domination.

Neo-Assyrian Empire — 911–609 BCE. Militaristic empire that conquered the Northern Kingdom and attacked Judah.

Neo-Babylonian Empire — 609–539 BCE. Empire that destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BCE.

Achaemenid Persian Empire — 539–332 BCE. Persian Empire that allowed Judean exiles to return and rebuild the Temple.

Hellenistic Period — 332–63 BCE. Greek control after Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire.

Roman Period — 63 BCE–324 CE. Begins when Pompey conquers Jerusalem.

WORD BANK — CHURCHES / CHRISTIAN SITES

Church of the Holy Sepulchre — Traditional site of Jesus’ crucifixion, burial, and resurrection in Jerusalem.

Church of the Nativity — Church in Bethlehem traditionally marking the birthplace of Jesus.

Garden Tomb — Alternative proposed burial site of Jesus outside Jerusalem walls; popular with some Protestant traditions.

Garden of Gethsemane — Garden on the Mount of Olives where Jesus prayed before arrest.

  • Bible Verse: Matthew 26:36–46

Upper Room — Traditional location of the Last Supper.

  • Bible Verse: Luke 22:7–38

WORD BANK — IRON AGE / ASSYRIA / BABYLON SITES

Lachish — Major Judahite city destroyed by Assyria during Sennacherib’s 701 BCE campaign.

Lachish Relief — Assyrian palace relief showing the siege of Lachish under Sennacherib.

Broad Wall — Large defensive wall built by Hezekiah in Jerusalem to prepare for Assyrian invasion.

Hezekiah’s Tunnel — Underground water tunnel redirecting water from the Gihon Spring into Jerusalem before the Assyrian siege.

Pool of Siloam — Reservoir fed by Hezekiah’s Tunnel; associated with John 9 healing story.

Siloam Inscription — Hebrew inscription commemorating completion of Hezekiah’s Tunnel.

Babylon — Capital city of the Neo-Babylonian Empire that conquered Jerusalem in 586 BCE.

Samaria — Capital city of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. Fell to Assyria after siege by Shalmaneser V.

Megiddo — Strategically important northern city controlling trade routes.

Qumran — Site near Dead Sea where Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered.

WORD BANK — ROMAN / GOSPEL SITES

Nazareth — Hometown of Jesus in Galilee.

  • Bible Verse: Matthew 4:13

Capernaum — Fishing village where Jesus based much of his ministry.

  • Bible Verse: Matthew 4:13–16

Caesarea Maritima — Port city built by Herod the Great; Roman administrative center.

Masada — Desert fortress used by Jewish rebels against Rome.

Herodium — Fortress/palace built by Herod south of Jerusalem.

Machaerus — Fortress linked to imprisonment/execution of John the Baptist.

  • Bible Verse: Matthew 14:6–11

Antonia Fortress — Fortress near Temple Mount housing Roman troops.

Robinson’s Arch — Monumental staircase/arch connected to Temple Mount.

Royal Portico — Large basilica-like structure on Temple Mount built by Herod.

WORD BANK — KINGS / IMPORTANT FIGURES

Hezekiah — King of Judah during Assyrian siege of Jerusalem in 701 BCE. Built defensive features including Broad Wall and Hezekiah’s Tunnel.

Sennacherib — Assyrian king who attacked Judah and besieged Jerusalem in 701 BCE.

Nebuchadnezzar II — Babylonian king who destroyed Jerusalem and the First Temple in 586 BCE.

Josiah — King of Judah known for religious reforms and restoring Temple worship.

Herod the Great — Roman client king of Judea known for huge building projects and harsh rule. Rebuilt the Second Temple.

Cyrus the Great — Persian ruler who conquered Babylon and allowed Judeans to return home.

Tiglath-Pileser III — Assyrian king who conquered northern Israelite territory in 732 BCE.

Shalmaneser V — Assyrian king who besieged Samaria.

Jehu — King of Israel shown bowing before Assyrian king on the Black Obelisk.

Nabonidus — Final Neo-Babylonian king before Persian conquest.

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS / SHORT ANSWER TERMS

Imperialism — Ideology/practice where one society expands political or military domination over another society.

Example of Imperialism in the Southern Levant — Assyrians conquered Israel/Judah, imposed tribute, deported populations, and destroyed cities like Lachish.

Deportation — Forced relocation of conquered peoples used by Assyria and Babylon to weaken resistance.

Sennacherib Prism — Assyrian inscription describing Sennacherib’s campaign against Judah and siege of Jerusalem. Claims Hezekiah was trapped “like a bird in a cage.”

Black Obelisk — Monument of Shalmaneser III depicting Jehu paying tribute.

Dead Sea Scrolls — Ancient Jewish manuscripts discovered at Qumran containing biblical texts and sectarian writings.

Documentary Hypothesis — Theory that the Torah/Pentateuch was composed from multiple written sources.

Gospels — First four books of New Testament describing Jesus’ ministry.

Holy of Holies — Most sacred room in the Temple where God’s presence dwelled.

Court of the Gentiles — Outer Temple court where non-Jews could enter.

Court of Israel — Inner Temple court reserved for Jewish men.

Samaritans — Religious/ethnic group centered in Samaria with their own traditions and version of the Torah.

Sofer — Jewish scribe who copied sacred texts.

HEZEKIAH SHORT ANSWER — ARCHAEOLOGICAL FEATURES

Broad Wall

  • Massive defensive wall built in Jerusalem before Assyrian invasion.

  • Evidence Hezekiah prepared for siege.

Hezekiah’s Tunnel

  • Tunnel cut through bedrock to secure Jerusalem’s water supply during siege.

Pool of Siloam

  • Water reservoir connected to Hezekiah’s Tunnel.

Siloam Inscription

  • Hebrew inscription celebrating completion of the tunnel project.

THREE STRUCTURES COMMISSIONED BY HEROD THE GREAT

Herodium — Fortress/palace and likely burial site.

Caesarea Maritima — Massive Mediterranean port city.

Expansion of the Second Temple / Temple Mount — Enlarged Temple complex including Royal Portico and retaining walls.

(Also acceptable depending on lecture emphasis:)

  • Masada

  • Antonia Fortress

  • Jericho Winter Palace

2 Kings 15:23–38

Key Verse

“In the fiftieth year of Azariah king of Judah, Pekahiah son of Menahem became king of Israel in Samaria, and he reigned two years.” — 2 Kings 15:23

“Then Pul king of Assyria invaded the land…” — 2 Kings 15:19

“In the time of Pekah king of Israel, Tiglath-Pileser king of Assyria came and took…” — 2 Kings 15:29

Context

This chapter describes political instability in the Northern Kingdom of Israel during the rise of Assyrian power. Israel experiences assassinations, weak kings, and increasing Assyrian control.

Important figures:

  • Tiglath-Pileser III

  • Pekah

  • Menahem

  • Assyria

Archaeology Connection

  • Neo-Assyrian Empire expansion into the Southern Levant

  • Archaeological evidence of Assyrian conquest and tribute systems

  • Tiglath-Pileser III’s campaigns against Israel

  • Beginning of Assyrian domination over Israel

2 Kings 25:1–21

Key Verses

“So in the ninth year of Zedekiah’s reign, on the tenth day of the tenth month, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon marched against Jerusalem with his whole army.” — 2 Kings 25:1

“The Babylonians broke down the walls around Jerusalem.” — 2 Kings 25:10

“He set fire to the temple of the Lord, the royal palace and all the houses of Jerusalem.” — 2 Kings 25:9

Context

This passage describes the Babylonian siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE under Nebuchadnezzar II. The First Temple is destroyed and many Judahites are deported to Babylon.

Important themes:

  • Destruction

  • Exile

  • Collapse of Judah

Archaeology Connection

  • Burn layers discovered in Jerusalem

  • Babylonian destruction evidence

  • Deportation of Judahites

  • Beginning of Babylonian Exile

Connected terms:

  • Neo-Babylonian Empire

  • Nebuchadnezzar II

  • Deportation

  • Burnt House

2 Chronicles 32:1–23

Key Verses

“After all that Hezekiah had so faithfully done, Sennacherib king of Assyria came and invaded Judah.” — 2 Chronicles 32:1

“This is what Hezekiah says: ‘Be strong and courageous. Do not be afraid or discouraged because of the king of Assyria.’” — 2 Chronicles 32:7

“And the Lord sent an angel, who annihilated all the fighting men and the commanders and officers in the camp of the Assyrian king.” — 2 Chronicles 32:21

Context

This passage describes King Hezekiah preparing Jerusalem for Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 BCE. He fortifies the city, secures water sources, and trusts in God during the Assyrian siege.

Archaeology Connection

This is probably the MOST IMPORTANT short-answer passage.

Associated archaeological features:

  • Hezekiah’s Tunnel

  • Broad Wall

  • Pool of Siloam

  • Siloam Inscription

  • Lachish Relief

  • Sennacherib Prism

The Sennacherib Prism describes Hezekiah trapped “like a bird in a cage.”

The slides specifically connect this passage to the Assyrian siege.

Matthew 4:12–25

Key Verses

“Leaving Nazareth, he went and lived in Capernaum, which was by the lake in the area of Zebulun and Naphtali.” — Matthew 4:13

“From that time on Jesus began to preach, ‘Repent, for the kingdom of heaven has come near.’” — Matthew 4:17

Context

Jesus begins his public ministry in Galilee after leaving Nazareth and settling in Capernaum.

Important themes:

  • Beginning of ministry

  • Galilee

  • Calling disciples

Archaeology Connection

Key archaeological sites:

  • Nazareth

  • Capernaum

  • Sea of Galilee

Capernaum archaeology includes:

  • Ancient fishing village

  • Synagogue remains

  • Early churches

Mark 15:21–47

Key Verses

“They brought Jesus to the place called Golgotha (which means ‘the place of the skull’).” — Mark 15:22

“With a loud cry, Jesus breathed his last.” — Mark 15:37

“Joseph bought some linen cloth, took down the body, wrapped it in the linen, and placed it in a tomb cut out of rock.” — Mark 15:46

Context

This passage describes:

  • Jesus’ crucifixion

  • Death

  • Burial

Important themes:

  • Roman execution

  • Burial traditions

  • Jerusalem during Roman rule

Archaeology Connection

Main associated sites:

  • Church of the Holy Sepulchre

  • Garden Tomb

  • Golgotha

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is traditionally believed to preserve the site of Jesus’ crucifixion and burial.

Luke 22:7–38

Key Verses

“Then came the day of Unleavened Bread on which the Passover lamb had to be sacrificed.” — Luke 22:7

“And he took bread, gave thanks and broke it, and gave it to them.” — Luke 22:19

“This cup is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you.” — Luke 22:20

Context

This chapter describes:

  • The Last Supper

  • Passover meal

  • Jesus preparing disciples for his arrest

Important themes:

  • Covenant

  • Passover

  • Eucharist/Communion

Archaeology Connection

Main archaeological/traditional site:

  • Upper Room in Jerusalem

Also connected to:

  • Jerusalem during Roman period

  • Second Temple pilgrimage traditions