Settlement at Geneva
Settlement at Geneva
French Involvement in Southeast Asia
In the 17th century, French traders and missionaries arrived in Southeast Asia.
By 1884, France had established military domination over the region, declaring a protectorate over what is now Vietnam, referred to as Indochina by the French.
A protectorate is defined as a relationship where a superior power assumes protection and partial control over a dependent country or region.
World War II and the First Indochina War
During World War II, the Japanese occupied Vietnam, facing opposition from Vietnamese nationalists.
In 1946, the French attempted to regain control, leading to a war that ended in 1954 with the French defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu.
Geneva Conference and the Division of Vietnam
Following the French defeat, a peace conference was held in Geneva, Switzerland.
Vietnam was divided into two parts:
The South, ruled by Vietnamese Emperor Bao Dai.
The North, controlled by the Viet Minh, a coalition of nationalist and Communist groups.
The plan was to unify the country in 1956 through elections.
Buildup to the Geneva Conference
After the Korean War cease-fire in July 1953, Communist support to Ho Chi Minh's Viet-Minh forces increased.
Pressure mounted in France for a negotiated settlement similar to the Korean model.
At the Bermuda conference in December 1953, President Eisenhower, Prime Minister Churchill, and French Premier Joseph Laniel decided to discuss the Indochina issue with the Soviet Union.
In February 1954, foreign ministers meeting in Berlin agreed to hold a conference in Geneva to discuss both Korea and Indochina.
General Vo Nguyen Giap, Ho's Commander in Chief, aimed to strengthen the Viet Minh's negotiating position by inflicting a significant defeat on the French.
The Geneva Conference Begins
The Geneva Conference commenced on April 27.
The news of the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu overshadowed the Korean discussions, which stalled.
By May 8, when the conference turned to Indochina, Dien Bien Phu had fallen, leading French Foreign Minister Georges Bidault to deliver a speech mourning the fallen French soldiers.
Military and Political Situation
The war was not progressing favorably for France, except in South Vietnam.
Saigon had successfully suppressed terrorism, and the Cao-Dai, Hoa-Hao sects, and Roman Catholic militia units had removed Viet-Minh control from parts of the Mekong Delta.
However, the situation in the North was deteriorating, causing Vietnamese morale to decline.
Forces Involved
The Vietnamese National Army, established by France in 1948, had approximately 200,000 regular soldiers and 50,000 village militiamen by February 1954.
An additional 30,000 Vietnamese soldiers were part of the 178,000-strong French Expeditionary Force in Indochina.
About 50,000 Cambodians and Laotians were also involved in the fight against the Viet-Minh.
Ho Chi Minh's forces had evolved from guerrilla bands to a well-equipped army with seven divisions, using modern American weapons captured by the Chinese in Korea.
The Communist forces included fewer than 100,000 regular soldiers, 50,000 regional semiregulars, and about 225,000 local guerrillas.
Military Balance and U.S. Involvement
Despite being numerically inferior, the Communist forces had a strategic advantage.
Experts suggested that defending forces needed a 10-to-1 superiority to win, while the French had only a 1.2-to-1 edge.
The French sought open military support from the United States.
The U.S. had established a Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) in July 1950 and had provided $1 billion in aid to Indochina by the end of the fighting.
U.S. Reluctance and International Dynamics
The United States was hesitant to engage in another Asian conflict shortly after the Korean War, especially in support of a colonial power.
Britain was cautious not to jeopardize détente between the East and West over what seemed to be a marginal issue.
Participants in the Geneva talks included:
The French-sponsored State of Viet-Nam, Laos, and Cambodia.
The Viet-Minh's Democratic Republic of Viet-Nam, Russia, and Communist China.
Britain and Russia acted as co-chairmen, represented by Anthony Eden and Vyacheslav Molotov, respectively.
Negotiations and Partition
Initially, the Saigon delegation advocated for territorial unity and UN-supervised elections.
The Western powers believed that partition was inevitable.
The Viet-Minh delegation, initially supporting nationwide elections, later accepted partition into temporary regroupment areas after discussions between China's Premier Chou En-lai and Ho Chi Minh.
Negotiations involved attempts to expand allotted zones and establish supervisory machinery, amidst military failures for the French and disintegration of Saigon's administration.
American Role and Influence
The American delegation's influence diminished due to pressure not to appear to endorse a surrender to Communism.
Secretary Dulles left Geneva before the Indochina conference began, and the American delegation was reduced to an observer mission.
Geneva Agreements and Cease-fire
The Geneva agreements were primarily military cease-fire agreements.
The signing and execution of the agreements were reserved for military authorities on both sides.
On July 20, an agreement was reached on Viet-Nam, with Molotov accepting the 17th parallel as the cease-fire line.
Agreements on Laos and Cambodia were finalized by the next morning.
Brigadier General Henri Delteil signed for the French Army High Command, and Brigadier General Ta Quang Buu signed for the Viet-Minh.
At 3:43 A.M. on July 21, 1954, the First Indochina War concluded.
Consequences of the Geneva Settlement in Viet-Nam
The Geneva settlement led to a grim situation in Viet-Nam.
Approximately 860,000 refugees, including over 500,000 Catholics, moved to South Viet-Nam, which was south of the 17th parallel.
Viet-Minh regulars occupied cities and towns in the North as French troops withdrew.
Around 190,000 Franco-Vietnamese troops relocated south of the demarcation line, with many Vietnamese soldiers deserting to stay with their families in the North.
In the South, about 80,000 local guerrillas and regulars, along with their dependents, moved northward, including around 10,000 mountain tribesmen.
An estimated 5,000 to 6,000 hard-core guerrillas went underground in the South, concealing weapons and blending into village life.
In cities, leaders like Nguyen Huu Tho promoted peace and reunification but were suppressed by Saigon police.
Challenges in South Viet-Nam
The Diem regime in Saigon faced administrative chaos, refugee influx, and challenges from various political and religious groups.
The government's prospects for survival were considered poor.
President Eisenhower noted that most people believed Ho Chi Minh would win elections with approximately 80% of the vote.
The North had a population of over 15 million, while the South had fewer than 12 million.
An election would likely have resulted in a peaceful takeover of Viet-Nam by Ho Chi Minh in July 1956.
Diem removed Bao-Dai through a rigged plebiscite in 1955, securing 98.8% of the vote; Diem was later overthrown and assassinated in a coup in 1963, while Bao-Dai lived in France.
Diem's Rejection of the Geneva Agreements
The Diem government rejected the Geneva agreements, arguing they were signed by a foreign military command against Vietnamese national interests.
Diem refused to consult with North Viet-Nam about elections and rejected proposals to normalize economic and postal regulations.
Diem's stance led to an economic blockade, impacting North Viet-Nam, which had relied on over 200,000 tons of southern rice annually.
French Withdrawal and Saigon's Actions
France, engaged in a new colonial war in Algeria, did not object when Diem requested the withdrawal of French troops in February 1956.
The French High Command in Indochina, which had signed the Geneva agreements, was dissolved on April 26, 1956.
Some in Saigon considered nullifying the Geneva accords.
Mobs ransacked the Saigon offices of the International Commission for Supervision and Control (ICSC) on the first anniversary of the cease-fire.