SOUNDS IN ENGLISH (PHONOLOGY)

Sounds in English (Phonology)

Definitions

• Phonetics: The scientific study of speech sounds, encompassing their physical properties, production, transmission, and perception.

• Articulatory Phonetics: Focuses on how speech sounds are produced by the movement of the articulators (e.g., lips, tongue, vocal cords).

• Acoustic Phonetics: Examines the properties of sound waves produced during speech, including frequency, amplitude, and duration.

• Auditory Phonetics: Studies how the human auditory system perceives and processes speech sounds.

• Phonology: The abstract, cognitive aspect of sound systems in languages that involves the rules and patterns that govern the organization of speech sounds. It deals with how sounds function and are patterned in specific languages.

Examples of Sound Combinations

• Valid: Words like "black" and "blick" conform to phonological rules of English.

• Invalid: The sequence "*lbick" is not permissible as it does not align with English phonological structure.

Importance of Phonetic Features for Word Identification

Phonetic features play a crucial role in distinguishing words, such as the voicing contrast in the pairs "pat" (voiceless) and "bat" (voiced). This distinction is vital in understanding meaning.

Adjust for Morpheme Pronunciation

Morphological changes, like the phonetic adjustments in past tense forms, are significant. For instance, the words "called," "cooked," and "heated" illustrate how pronunciation varies based on morpheme endings and preceding sounds.

Phonetic Symbols for American English Consonants

Consonants in American English can be classified into different categories based on the point of articulation:

• Bilabial: /p/, /b/ (Stop: oral) – produced with both lips.

• Labiodental: /f/, /v/ (Fricative) – articulated with the lower lip against the upper teeth.

• Interdental: /θ/, /ð/ (Fricative) – produced between the tongue and the teeth.

• Alveolar: /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /r/, /l/ – articulated with the tongue against the alveolar ridge.

• Palatal: /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /j/ – articulated with the middle part of the tongue against the hard palate.

• Velar: /k/, /g/, /ŋ/ – produced with the back of the tongue against the soft palate (velum).

• Glottal: /ʔ/ – produced at the vocal cords.

Nasal Sounds

• Nasal Sounds: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ (voiced) – produced with airflow through the nasal cavity.

Fricative Sounds

• Fricative Sounds: Include /f/, /v/ (voiced), /ʃ/, /ʒ/ (voiced), produced by forcing air through a narrow channel.

Additional Consonant Types

• Affricate Sounds: /ts/, /dʒ/ – begin as stop consonants and release as fricatives.

• Liquid Sounds: /r/, /l/ – allow air to flow around the sides of the tongue.

• Glides: /w/, /j/ – involve a glide from one vowel sound to another.

Pronunciation of Morphemes

In English, morphemes can take on different pronunciations based on the surrounding sounds, primarily in plural forms:

• Column A: cab [kæb] → [z] (voiced alveolar fricative)

• Column B: cap [kæp] → [s] (voiceless)

• Column C: bus [bʌs] → [əz] (voiced following consonants)

• Column D: Notable irregular plurals such as children, oxen, mice, criteria, sheep that do not follow regular pluralization rules.

Allomorph Environment for Plurals

Phonologically conditioned rules for plural formation:

• [z] occurs after voiced sounds (e.g., b, d, g, m, n, l)

• [s] follows voiceless sounds (e.g., p, t, k, f, θ)

• [əz] appears after sibilants (e.g., s, ŋ, ʃ, z, ʒ, dʒ)

Minimal Pairs

• Definition: Minimal pairs are two words that differ by a single phoneme, showing a contrast in meaning and phonological structure.

• Examples: cab [kæb] vs. cad [kæd], cat [kæt] vs. mat [mæt], and bag vs. back, bag vs. badge.

Phonemes and Allophones

• Phonemes: Fundamental sound units that can distinguish meaning in a language.

• Allophones: Variations of a phoneme that appear in different contexts but do not change the meaning of the word. An example is /p/, where [pʰ] in "pit" (aspirated) differs from [p] in "spit" (unaspirated).

Basic Concepts of Phonology

• Phoneme: An abstract unit of sound that can create a difference in meaning, typically highlighted through minimal pairs.

• Allophone: Variants of a phoneme that appear in specific phonetic environments, reflecting the unpredictability of sounds in actual speech.

• Phone: The actual, concrete phonetic realization of sounds in speech.

Conclusion

Understanding phonology and its detailed aspects, such as the rules governing sound systems, phonetic distinctions, and morpheme pronunciation is crucial for analyzing language structure, acquisition, and use effectively. This foundation supports further studies in linguistic theory and practical application across various languages.