Lesson 19: Social Movements
SOCIAL MOVEMENT
It is a collective effort by a group of people who share similar goals and values, often aiming to bring about change in society.
ELEMENTS THAT DEFINE SOCIAL MOVEMENT
Group Effort Rooted in Shared Goals
It is driven by a group of people who unite around a common cause, all working towards achieving similar objectives (UNICEF, 2024).
Campaigning for Change
Social movements typically involve groups of people who share the same ideas about what is important. They engage in various forms of campaigning:
Protesting
Advocating
Giving Speeches
The focus is often on achieving change in:
Society – civil rights
Politics – workers’ rights
Economy – anti-austerity measures (actions or ideas that oppose cuts to government spending)
Nonviolent Resistance and Social Change
Social movements often take the form of nonviolent protest, challenging the existing system or status quo. Through sustained effort, these movements aim to create a better society by addressing issues of inequality, injustice, and other societal problems.
From Short-Term Impulse to Long-Term Aims
While social movements may begin as short-lived impulses or reactions to immediate issues, they can evolve into long-term efforts.
When these movements develop sustained associations of individuals over time, they move from being situational groupings to organized movements with long-term goals.
Reaction to Social or Political Change
Social movements often emerge as a response to proposed or existing changes in society.
They can be triggered by dissatisfaction with current political, social, or economic conditions, and aim to either oppose or influence these changes.
Distinction from Political Parties
Social movements are distinct from political parties. Unlike political parties, which are formal organizations with defined structures and political platforms, social movements are often less formal and more fluid.
They may be less predictable and are usually more focused on social, cultural, or economic issues rather than seeking to control political office or government power.
PRIMARY CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL MEDIA – BY DOUGLASS MCADAM (1994)
REACTIVE
It is reactive when it responds to an external crisis or a specific event. This means the movement arises due to a sudden or urgent situation that requires a collective response.
PROTECTIVE
It occurs when people respond to an ongoing injustice that exists within society. In this case, the individuals making up the movement are motivated by the desire to protect certain rights or freedoms, and they hope for change to address the persistent injustice. The movement is focused on stopping further harm or ensuring that rights are upheld.
CONSTRUCTIVE
It seeks to build upon the status quo, but with the goal of creating changes that will benefit everyone in society.
This type of movement does not necessarily oppose existing systems or institutions, but aims to improve and reform them in a way that benefits the broader community.
The goal is progressive change that is inclusive and beneficial to all.
TYPES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
REDEMPTIVE
Often described as “meaning seeking,”
It focuses on a specific segment of the population, where their goal is to provoke inner change or spiritual growth in individuals.
These movements are typically aimed at achieving deep, personal transformation and are sometimes referred to as “religious movements”.
Example
Certain religious sects or spiritual movements that focus on personal renewal.
ALTERNATIVE
It is typically focused on self-improvement and aims for limited or specific changes in individual beliefs or behavior.
They are often more personal in nature and focus on helping individuals make changes to their lifestyle, habits, or worldview.
Example
Movements promoting a specific lifestyle, such as minimalism, veganism, or other personal transformations.
REFORMATIVE
It aims to change something specific about the social structure, such as laws, policies, or practices within a society.
While they seek limited changes, these changes are targeted at the entire population and are often focused on specific issues like civil rights, gender equality, or environmental reforms.
Example
The civil rights movement or LGBTQ+ rights movements that push for changes in laws and social norms.
REVOLUTIONARY
It seeks to completely change every aspect of society.
They aim for dramatic, sweeping changes that often involve overthrowing or radically transforming political, economic, or social structures.
Example
Movements such as the French Revolution or Russian Revolution, where the goal was to change the entire political system.
HOW ARE SOCIAL MOVEMENTS CLASSIFIED?
SCOPE
Social movements can be classified based on the scope of the change they seek:
Reform Movements: These advocate for changing some norms or laws within society. They seek improvements within the existing system.
Radical Movements: These are dedicated to changing value systems in fundamental ways, often questioning the very foundations of societal structures.
TYPE OF CHANGE
Social movements can also be classified by the type of change they aim to bring about:
Innovative Movements: These aim to introduce new norms and values to society, pushing for progressive changes.
Conservative Movements: These movements seek to preserve existing norms and values, often resisting change or defending traditions.
TARGETS
Movements can focus their efforts on different targets:
Group-Focused Movements: These movements aim to change the conditions or rights of specific groups in society:
Racial
Ethnic
Gender Groups
Individual-Focused Movements: These are aimed at changing individual behavior, attitudes, or beliefs.
Lifestyle or Personal Development Movements
RANGE
The range of a social movement refers to its geographic reach or delimitations :
Global Movements: These movements aim for global change, affecting societies across multiple countries or continents.
Local Movements: These are more localized and focus on achieving change within a specific community, city, or region.
STAGES OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
– BY BLUMER (1969) AND TILLY (1978)
PRELIMINARY STAGE
In the preliminary stage, individuals become aware of an issue that requires attention.
This is the stage where leaders often emerge, and the initial sparks of the movement begin to form.
The issue gains recognition but has not yet gathered large-scale support.
COALESCENCE STAGE
During the coalescence stage, people come together and organize to focus efforts on publicizing the issue.
The movement begins to raise awareness, and groups form more strategically to mobilize for change. This is when collective action becomes more visible, and individuals unite for a common cause.
INSTITUTIONALIZATION STAGE
In the institutionalization stage, the movement matures. It no longer depends on grassroots volunteerism and becomes a more formal organization.
The movement now has a paid staff and established structures, which allows for more efficient operations and long-term sustainability. The focus shifts from initial enthusiasm to established strategic goals.
DECLINE STAGE
It occurs when the movement either successfully achieves its goals or when the public’s interest in the issue fades.
Individuals begin to adopt new movements, or when people fall away as the issue loses its urgency or momentum.
POLITICAL ATTITUDES
It refers to the views and beliefs individuals hold regarding political issues, events, and institutions.
These attitudes can shape public opinion and significantly influence political behavior, reflecting a wide range of ideologies—from conservatism to liberalism.
Political attitudes can be shaped by various factors, including:
Culture
Education
Socialization
Personal Experiences
Political Socialization
It plays a critical role in forming political attitudes by introducing individuals to societal norms and values related to politics.
This process helps individuals understand the political environment they are part of.
Political attitudes can range from:
Strong support for government policies or political figures to:
Deep skepticism or opposition to political institutions or policies.
These attitudes are not static and can change over time, especially when influenced by new information or events that alter individuals’ perspectives.
Understanding political attitudes helps explain various aspects of political life, such as:
Voting Behavior
Party Affiliation
Civic Engagement
These attitudes provide insight into how people participate in the political system and contribute to a society’s political dynamics.
SPECTRUM OF POLITICAL ATTITUDES
RADICAL
Radicals are located at the farthest left on the political spectrum, often feeling the most discontented with the status quo or the existing system.
Radicals advocate for immediate and revolutionary change, seeking a system that is entirely new and different from the current one.
All radicals favor revolutionary change, pushing for drastic transformations.
The main difference between radicals and other groups is the method they would use to achieve change.
Radicals tend to favor more radical, drastic methods, including potential social upheaval or violence.
LIBERAL
Liberals are less dissatisfied with the status quo than radicals, but they still seek fundamental change to the system.
Liberals are impatient for change and prefer rapid, far-reaching, and progressive transformations.
The key difference between liberals and radicals is their attitude towards law.
Liberals believe in changing the system within the existing legal framework, while radicals may seek to overthrow the current system altogether.
There are two types of liberals:
Classical Liberals: Focus on individual and property rights.
Contemporary Liberals: Emphasize human rights and view people collectively.
MODERATE
Moderates generally see little wrong with society, but they are still more open to change than conservatives.
Moderates are not fully committed to any particular ideological stance and often find themselves somewhere between liberal and conservative views.
Moderates are often seen as less-committed or ambivalent, leading to perceptions of them being faint-hearted or uncommitted.
They believe change should be gradual, rather than radical or extreme as it can disrupt society.
CONSERVATIVE
They are the “law and order” advocates, strongly supporting the status quo or the existing system. They are reluctant to embrace change.
Conservatives believe that incompetent meddling in the system will only lead to more problems, not because they oppose improvement, but because they believe in the stability of existing structures.
The essential difference between conservatives and liberals is their viewpoint on when an ideal system can be achieved: conservatives believe in gradual, incremental improvements, while liberals call for quicker, more radical reforms.
Conservatives have little trust in the capability of human reason to understand or solve societal problems, often favoring authoritarian control over individuals in society.
REACTIONARY
Reactionaries are located at the farthest right of the political spectrum and are the only group advocating for retrogressive change.
Reactionaries seek to return society to a previous condition, aiming to replace current institutions with older political norms and policies.
Reactionaries reject modern values and reject the progressive ideals defined by left-wing movements. Instead, they look backward to previous norms or values, often wanting to reinstate systems or policies from earlier historical periods.
POLITICAL ATTITUDE VS IDEOLOGY
Political Attitudes and Political Ideology are two distinct concepts that influence an individual’s perspective on politics, but they focus on different aspects of political thought.
Political Attitudes
Concerned with the speed of political change and the methods used to achieve it.
Political attitudes focus on the specific context of political change within a given country.
It involves a reaction to the current political environment and may vary depending on the circumstances in that particular time or place.
Political Ideology
Composed of basic values an individual holds about the fundamental goals of politics, specifically freedom and equality.
Political ideologies tend to be more universal, as they believe there is one ideal way to balance freedom and equality, regardless of the country’s context or time period.
REFORM
General Definition
Reform consists of changes and improvements aimed at correcting injustices within a law, social system, or institution.
Political Context
In the political context, reform refers to the various movements or efforts made to improve governance and achieve social justice, without resorting to revolutionary methods.
DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF FREEDOM
REFORMISM AND
REVOLUTIONARY SOCIALISM
Reformism is an ideology developed in opposition to revolutionary socialism. It rejects the idea that a revolution is necessary to make structural changes.
Reform is seen as a means of improving the conditions of capitalism without overthrowing it.
One perspective is that “capitalism cannot be overthrown; instead, it is strengthened through social reforms.”
Reformism is criticized by some as a diversion that channels energy away from revolutionary change, making it “limited” since it adheres to the existing capitalist system.
EDUARD BERNSTEIN’S VIEW
Eduard Bernstein, a German social democratic Marxist theorist, argued that revolution was unnecessary because it tends to produce reactionary outcomes.
Instead, he believed that reform is the most effective strategy for creating a social movement that brings about continuous change.
Bernstein viewed gradual reform as a way to transform society over time, rather than seeking an immediate, disruptive revolution.
ANDRE GORZ’S PERSPECTIVE
In contrast, Andre Gorz, an Austrian and French social philosopher, rejected the idea of reform altogether.
Gorz coined the term “non-reformist reform”, arguing that reforms should not be made within the constraints of the current system (e.g., capitalism). Instead, reforms should be driven by human needs and demands.
REVOLUTION
General Definition
A revolution is the forced replacement of a government or social institution in order to establish a new system.
Ibid Definition
A movement towards extreme or complete change to the status quo.
Oxford Language Definition
A forcible overthrow of a government or social order, in favor of a new system.
National Geographic Society
A radical change in the established order, typically involving the government and social institutions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF REVOLUTION
Rejection of Existing Authority
A revolution rejects the authority of the current government or ruling system with the goal of replacing it, usually with another existing type of government, rather than creating an entirely new system.
Violence and Conflict
Revolutions often lead to violent confrontations, especially as they target rulers or government officials. These conflicts can result in the death of key figures, making revolutions violent in nature.
Popular Uprising
Revolutions typically begin among the common people, often from the lower classes of society. It is driven by their desire for change and a reaction against social or political inequalities.
Rapid and Profound Change
Revolutions are characterized by profound and rapid change, typically involving force rather than a consensus or legal (juridical) processes. These changes occur quickly, disrupting the established order.
TYPES OF REVOLUTION
BY CHALMERS JOHNSON (1964)
JACQUERIES
Jacqueries refer to an insurrection or revolt by peasants against the nobility.
These revolts nearly always fail because peasants often lack the organization and education to seize and run governments.
Success in revolutions often requires leaders from the upper or middle classes.
Example
Peasant Revolt in Northern France, 1358
MILLENARIAN REBELLION
A jacquerie becomes a millenarian rebellion when led by a religious prophet.
The leader promises to sweep away all existing political institutions and usher in a millennium, a perfect society ruled by God’s law.
Example
Islamic Revolt in 1881
ANARCHISTIC REBELLION
These rebellions lack a clear political goal or unified leadership.
Often seen as revolts against revolutionary change that lack direction and organization.
Example
Pilgrimage of Grace, 1536
JACOBIN-COMMUNIST REVOLUTION
Jacobin-Communist revolutions are considered the rarest form of revolt.
They occur when a ruthlessly efficient, repressive, highly centralized regime replaces an inefficient, corrupt, aristocratic government.
These revolutions radically transform society, redistributing power and property from one class to another.
These revolutions are typically led by educated and well-organized elites.
Example
French Revolution, 1789
COUP D’ETAT
A Coup d'État (French: “stroke of state”) is a revolt staged by a small group of conspirators, typically without the support of the masses.
Example
Fidel Castro’s Cuban Revolution, 1959
MILITARIZED MASS INSURRECTIONS
A military takeover that requires popular support to succeed.
Rebels must rely on the peasantry for supplies, military information, and help.
Example
Communist revolt under Mao Zedong in the 1930s and 1940s
POLITICAL ATTITUDES:
REFORM OR REVOLUTION
RADICALS
Radicals prefer revolution because they believe fundamental changes to the existing system are necessary. For them, revolution is a swift and effective way to overhaul the system completely.
A prominent radical thinker, Karl Marx, argued that reforms are insufficient to solve deep societal inequalities. He believed that revolution was the only way to radically transform society and eliminate exploitation.
LIBERALS
Like radicals, liberals also see the need for fundamental change, which sometimes leads them to support revolution.
However, liberals distinguish themselves by seeking change through legal means and non-violent methods, unlike radicals who demand immediate and potentially illegal action.
Liberals may support gradual reforms rather than an outright revolution, but they still advocate for systemic change.
MODERATES
Moderates prefer reforms over revolution because they are not as dissatisfied with the current system as radicals or liberals.
They view reforms as a more measured, less violent approach to making improvements.
While revolution seems too abrupt and potentially dangerous, reforms offer a way to address problems without destabilizing society.
CONSERVATIVES
Conservatives generally resist change and prefer minimal reform or no change at all. They value traditions, institutions, and the stability that the current system provides.
For conservatives, revolutions are disruptive and take away the stability that they hold dear.
They favor maintaining the status quo and making small adjustments, rather than overthrowing or radically altering the existing system.
REACTIONARIES
Reactionaries, in Marx’s words, “hold a certain bygone era in high regar” and want to restore a past system they believe was superior to the current one.
While reactionaries might prefer to restore a past order, they paradoxically oppose revolutionary change that would lead to a better future.
Reactionaries typically use revolutionary tactics to dismantle the existing system and bring back a previous order, as seen in Adolf Hitler’s efforts to dismantle the Weimar Republic and restore authoritarian rule.
REFORM OR REVOLUTION: THINKERS’ VIEW
PRO-REVOLUTION
KARL MARX
Revolution: For Marx, revolution was the only way to radically transform society. He believed that the working class (proletariat) must overthrow the bourgeoisie to dismantle the capitalist system and restructure society.
Reform: Marx viewed reforms as insufficient because they only prolong the existence of capitalism, which inherently exploits the working class. He argued that reforms might improve conditions temporarily but would never address the root causes of inequality and oppression within capitalism.
ROSA LUXEMBERG
Revolution: Luxemburg also supported revolution, emphasizing the importance of mass participation and spontaneous uprisings by the working class. She argued that revolution was an organic process arising from the contradictions of capitalism itself.
Reform: Luxemburg critiqued reformism, claiming that it would never lead to true emancipation for the working class. While reforms could improve conditions, she believed that they would always serve the interests of the ruling class and could never replace the need for revolution.
PRO-REFORM
JOHN STUART MILL
Reform: Mill was a strong advocate of gradual reform through democratic institutions. He believed social change should occur through rational discourse, political participation, and non-violent methods. He supported reforms like expanding suffrage, improving education, and protecting individual liberties as essential to societal progress.
Revolution: Unlike Marx, Mill was skeptical of revolution, especially violent ones. He feared that revolutions could lead to chaos and the loss of individual freedoms. Mill believed in steady, incremental progress through democratic means rather than radical upheavals.
MAHATMA GANDHI
Reform: Gandhi advocated for non-violent civil disobedience to bring about reform in systems of oppression, particularly British colonialism in India. He believed in the power of moral force and peaceful resistance as a way to achieve gradual change without violence.
Revolution: Although Gandhi sought independence from British rule (which could be seen as revolutionary), he rejected violent revolution. His philosophy of Satyagraha (truth-force) emphasized moral and spiritual transformation over physical revolt, focusing on both societal and individual reform.
IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL MOVEMENT
Influence on Institutions and Policies
Transnational social movements are crucial actors in shaping global institutions, policies, and systems of meaning. These movements work to ensure that the global system becomes more open and accountable.
By demanding transparency and democratic accountability, transnational movements contribute to the preservation of democracy worldwide. They often challenge inequalities and push for progressive changes in oppressive systems.
Challenging Oppressive Systems
Social movements are essential in addressing social inequalities and fighting for the rights of marginalized groups. They call for progress and work to transform oppressive systems, whether economic, political, or social.
These movements play a vital role in bringing attention to issues of injustice and inequality, fostering change that might otherwise be neglected by mainstream political systems.
Impact on Political Attitudes and Participation
Political attitudes significantly shape individual engagement with government. Social movements influence how people perceive their leaders and policies, which in turn affects political participation.
Individuals with positive political attitudes may be more likely to engage in activities such as voting, participating in civic organizations, or supporting government initiatives.
Conversely, those with negative attitudes toward the government may experience apathy or take part in protest movements against government actions or policies.
Understanding Political Engagement
Social movements provide insight into the variations in political participation across different segments of society. By understanding these movements and the political attitudes behind them, we can better explain why some groups participate more actively in politics than others.
For example, negative attitudes toward the government can fuel protests and dissent, while positive attitudes can lead to greater involvement in democratic processes.