Notes on Emotion and Motivation

Emotion and Motivation

  • Scientific Exploration: Emotions and motivations are often seen as uncontrollable, but psychologists study their origins and influences on behavior.

Theories of Emotion

  • William James (Early 20th Century): Emotions arise from bodily reactions; awareness of bodily responses leads to emotional labeling (e.g., fear from racing heart).
  • Schachter & Singer (1962): Introduced the two-factor theory, emphasizing the role of cognition in interpreting physiological arousal. Emotions arise from:
    1. Physiological arousal
    2. Environmental and cognitive appraisal of the situation.

Key Experiments (Schachter and Singer)

  • Study Design: Involved 185 undergraduate males, with injections of either epinephrine (experienced arousal) or saline (control).
  • Observations: Emotional responses varied based on whether subjects were informed about the drug's effects.
    • Uninformed: Emotion based on the confederate’s behavior (happy vs. angry).
    • Informed/control: Did not exhibit strong emotional responses.
  • Conclusions: Emotion is a two-stage process:
    • Physiological arousal + Situation interpretation = Emotion.

Universal Facial Expressions (Ekman and Friesen)

  • Hypothesis: Facial expressions for basic emotions are universal across cultures.
  • Method: Conducted studies among isolated cultures (e.g., the Fore people of New Guinea) to avoid cultural bias.
    • Subjects successfully identified emotions corresponding to facial expressions.
  • Results: Strong support for the universality of facial expressions of happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, disgust, and fear.

Implications of Emotional Research

  • Diversity of Emotions: Six basic emotions as innate; others might be combinations or variations.
  • Evolutionary Perspective: Facial expressions serve adaptive functions in communication and survival.
  • Facial Feedback Theory: Facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.

Limitations and Critiques

  • Sequence of Emotion: Some argue that emotional appraisals may occur prior to physiological reactions.
  • Diverse Expressions: Evidence suggests physiological responses can differ between emotions, challenging Schachter’s theory.
  • Errors in Emotion Recognition: Difficulties in distinguishing between expressions (e.g., fear vs. surprise).

Outcomes of Research**:

  • Established foundational understanding of emotion linked to physiology and cognition, influencing future psychological research and theory development.