Mexican and Cuban Independence

A map depicting the United States at the beginning of the 19th century is referenced.
The focus will be on the era following U.S. independence, particularly its impact on Latino history.

The United States gained independence in 1776 from Britain.
Initially, the U.S. was composed mainly of the Eastern Seaboard with original colonies.
The country grew significantly by 1803, notably due to the Louisiana Purchase.
- This purchase doubled the size of the United States shortly after the Revolutionary War.

The territorial expansion led to plans for Western colonization as areas once dominated by the French were now also American territories.
Within a short time after the Louisiana Purchase, Illinois, Indiana, Mississippi, and Florida were incorporated into the U.S.
At this time, Florida was under British control, while other territories were under Spanish governance.

In 1808, tensions arose between France and Spain, impacting Spain's control in Latin America.
Spain’s internal conflict weakened their hold over their colonies, paving the way for independence movements.

In 1810, a revolt against Spanish rule began in Mexico, led by Father Miguel Hidalgo.
- This uprisings celebrated every year on September 15 and 16, marked by the “Cry of Dolores”, which was a call for revolution against Spanish rule.
The conflict lasted about ten years, ultimately leading to Spanish withdrawal from Mexico.
Following the uprising, leaders of the independence movement emerged, including notable figures such as Vicente Guerrero.

Mexico evolved from the colonial designation of New Spain to its new identity as an independent nation.
Post-independence, Mexico faced the challenge of nation-building and territorial management primarily addressed through military leadership.

The ideology of Manifest Destiny emerged, which suggested that it was a divine right and duty for the U.S. to expand westward across the North American continent.
This belief justified the encroachment upon and displacement of Indigenous peoples.

The iconic painting "American Progress" symbolizes the idea of Manifest Destiny.
- It depicts a figure leading civilization toward the west, representing the United States symbolically as an angelic figure.
Elements of the painting include:
- Indigenous peoples and animals being displaced as civilization and technology progress westward.
- The angelic figure leading the way signifies enlightenment and progress brought to the frontier.
- Nature and industrialization are contrasted in the visual narrative, signifying a shift in the American landscape.

Expansion led to the systematic removal of Indigenous peoples from their lands, especially evident after the presidency of Andrew Jackson, who enforced relocation policies.
The Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole tribes were primarily targeted during this period of forced relocations known as the Trail of Tears.

As the U.S. expanded, the debate over the status of slavery in new territories became a conflict essential to the nation’s politics.
The Missouri Compromise of 1820 stipulated that territories north of Missouri's southern border would be free, while those to the south could have slavery.
This compromise highlighted the growing complexity of the slavery issue in expanding U.S. territories.

Texas was a crucial area during this expansion; at the time, it was still part of Mexico.
Mexico faced significant challenges in populating Texas, leading to the invitation for American settlers, who primarily came from the United States, because Mexicans were not willing to move there due to danger and lack of resources.
- By 1834, over 35,000 Americans had settled in Texas, more than the local Mexican population, leading to cultural tensions.
A series of cultural differences emerged, notably language and religion (American settlers were predominantly Protestant, while Mexico was Catholic).

In 1836, American settlers (Texians) declared independence from Mexico, spurred largely by grievances against the Mexican government, leading to conflict and the eventual Battle of the Alamo.
Following the defeat of Mexican forces at the Battle of San Jacinto, the Texians captured General Santa Anna of Mexico and secured Texas's independence, although Mexico refused to recognize it.

The election of James K. Polk in 1844 set the stage for the Mexican-American War as he advocated for the annexation of Texas, California, and other territories.
When diplomatic resolutions failed, Polk ordered American troops to the Rio Grande, leading to armed conflict after skirmishes erupted with Mexican forces.
The war resulted in the U.S.'s rapid military success, leading to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, which ceded more than half of Mexico's territory to the United States for a mere $15 million.
- Significant land changes included present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado.

The war caused the death of thousands, with hundreds of thousands more impacted by displacement or economic hardship.
The acquisition solidified U.S. claims to the vast territories but raised complex issues surrounding the incorporation of new peoples and questions about slavery, which would later contribute to regional tensions leading to the Civil War.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided options for Mexicans living in ceded territories, offering them U.S. citizenship or the chance to relocate.
Uncertainties about rights and integration into American society followed, creating a complex legacy that persists today.

Manifest Destiny: The belief in the divine right and duty of the United States to expand westward.
Missouri Compromise (1820): Established a geographical boundary for slavery in new states.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848): Agreement that ended the Mexican-American War and ceded vast territories to the U.S.