Bio exam

Chapter 2 → 

Polar and non-polar bonds 

• These only describe covalent bonds 

• Polar → 

  • unequal (one atom pulling more than the other)

  • Exp. H2O → O pulls more than H2

  • Has partial charge

• Non-Polar → 

  • equal sharing 

Covalent bond sharing →

• Non-metals 

• Is the sharing equal or unequal (p or np)

Ionic →

• Transfer of electrons 

  • Cations - positive (atoms that lost electrons)

  • Anions - negative (atoms that gained electrons)

Isotopes →

• Atoms of same element 

• Same number of protons 

• But different among of neutrons 

• Different masses

Valence Electrons →

• Outermost electrons 

• Ones involved in bonding 

Types of Chemical Bonds → 

• Covalent 

  • Polar

  • Non-polar 

• Ionic 

Types of Intermolecular Bonds → 

• Hydrogen bonds 

  • Bond Nitrogen, Hydrogen, oxygen, or Fluorine 

  • Weak attraction between Molecules 

  • H+ from one molecule and a O- from another 

  • Only happen on polar molecules 

• Vander Wall forces 

  • Weaker than hydrogen bonds 

  • Can happen in non polar molecules 

  • Help molecules attract and stick to each other 

• Molecular Polarity  

  • One end thats - and other end thats +

  • Don't share electrons evenly 

  • Whole entire molecule 

Redox Reactions → 

• Oxidation: losing electrons

• Reduction: gaining electrons 

• They always happen together: if one atom loses and electron the other has to gain it 

Atomic Number →

• Protons 

Atomic Mass → 

• On periodic table 

Chapter 3 →

4 properties of water for life 

• Cohesion 

  • Water Molecules sticking to other Water Molecules because because of hydrogen bonding

• Adhesion 

  • Water sticking to other surfaces and not water

• High specific heat 

  • Water resists temperature change (takes a lot of energy to warm it up or cool it down)

• Evaporative cooling 

  • Water molecules at the surface evaporates and the surface cools

Solvents →

• Dissolves a substance 

Concentration →

• How much solute is in a solution 

Buffers → Keep pH more stable 

Acid → decrease in pH

Base → Increase in pH

Chapter 4 → 

How carbon bonds with other elements and itself 

• 4 valence electrons 

• 4 covalent bonds 

• Bond with and Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and other carbons 

Bonds with itself → 

• Creates a chain making a carbon skeleton 

• Can form rings or be straight (chain) 

• Single bond → one chain → saturated 

• Double or triple bonds→ unsaturated 

Types of Isomers → 

• Def: Molecules with the same molecular formula but different arrangement of atoms (molecular structure)

• Iso → same 

• Mers → unit

  • Types 

    • Structural → Different arrangement of same formula 

    • cis/trans → same formula but different groups around double bond 

      • Cis: important groups on same side 

      • Trans: opposite side 

    • Enantiomer → Mirror image molecules 

      • Like L and D hands 

      • L handed → amino acids 

      • D handed → sugars

Functional Groups 

• Amino NH2 (Makes Polar accepts hydrogen ions)

• Carboxyl COOH (makes more polar can donate an H+)

• Hydroxyl OH- (Makes more polar and deals with hydrogen bonds)

• Methyl CH3 (Non-polar does not donate hydrogen ions affects shape and function)

• Phosphate PO4 (polar and negatively charged It can donate H+)

Chapter 5 → 

Polymer formation reactions→ 

• Dehydration synthesis 

  • Remove OH from one monomer and one H from another 

• Hydroliss 

  • Water is added 

  • Add OH to one monomer and H to another monomer 

4 types of Macromolecules 

Lipids → 

• fats, oils, and waxes

• Non polar 

• Energy storage (phospholipids make up cell membrane) 

  • Water loving head and water fearing tail

Bonds: ester bonds (glycerol and fatty acids) 

Carbohydrates → 

• Macromolecules that consist of sugars and starches 

• Quick energy 

Monomer: monosaccharide 

polymer : polysaccharide 

Bonds: Glycosidic bonds 

Nucleic acids → 

• Dna 

• Rna 

• Store and transmit genetic information 

Monomer: Nucleotide 

Polymer: Dna or Rna 

Bonds: Phosphosiester bonds

Proteins → 

• Most of the jobs in a cell

• Signaling 

• Monomers (amino acids)

Monomer: Amino Acid

Polymer: Polypeptide or Protein 

Bonds: Peptide bonds

Dna and Central Dogma 

• Nucleotide monomers → Dna 

• Dna copied into Rna which is then made into a guide to make specific proteins 

• Central Dogma → describes central flow from Dna to Rna to a protein 

• Transcription happens where an enzyme reads the Dna strand and builds Rna 

• Translation → Rna read by ribosome which brings together amino acids based on sequence and links them together to form a protein by dehydration reaction