AP PSYCH UNIT 3

Developmental Psychology Notes: Modules 3.1 – 3.4

Module 3.1: Themes & Methods

  • Developmental Psychology:

    • Studies physical, cognitive, and social-emotional changes across the lifespan.

  • Research Methods:

    • Cross-Sectional Studies:

      • Involves comparing different age groups at the same time.

      • Advantages: Faster and cheaper than other methods.

    • Longitudinal Studies:

      • Follows and retests the same group of people over time.

  • Major Themes:

    • Nature vs. Nurture:

      • Discusses the interaction of genes (nature) and environment (nurture) in development.

    • Continuity vs. Stages:

      • Debate on whether development is gradual (continuity) or occurs in distinct, age-linked phases (staged).

      • Notable theorists include Piaget, Kohlberg, and Erikson.

    • Stability vs. Change:

      • Examines whether early traits persist or change over time.

Module 3.2A: Physical Development (Prenatal to Infancy)

  • Conception:

    • Occurs when 1 egg and 1 sperm combine.

  • Prenatal Stages:

    • Zygote (First 2 weeks):

      • Refers to the fertilized egg; not yet implanted in the uterus.

    • Embryo (Weeks 2–8):

      • Implants in uterus; inner cells develop into the embryo, outer cells become the placenta.

    • Fetus (9 weeks to birth):

      • Stage characterized by rapid growth and the refinement of organ systems.

  • Teratogens:

    • Harmful agents such as viruses, drugs, and chemicals that can cause developmental damage.

    • Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS):

      • A key example of teratogenic effects leading to distinctive physical and cognitive deficits in the affected infants.

  • Newborn Reflexes:

    • Rooting reflex (turning head), sucking reflex, grasping reflex, Moro reflex (startle reaction), Babinski reflex (toes fan out).

  • Newborn Abilities:

    • Visual acuity is clearest at approximately 12 inches.

    • Infants show a preference for their mother’s voice.

    • Habituation:

      • The decreased response to repeated stimuli, indicating some level of learning or cognitive processing.

  • Brain Development:

    • Genes provide the developmental blueprint, while experiences help shape neural connections.

    • Critical Period:

      • Refers to the optimal time frame for exposure to certain stimuli necessary for normal development, such as language acquisition.

  • Motor Development Sequence:

    • Sequence of motor skills development: Roll over → Sit → Crawl → Walk → Run.

    • Milestones:

      • Around 1 year: First steps and first words.

      • Around 2 years: Use of 2-word phrases.

Module 3.2B: Adolescence & Adulthood

  • Adolescence:

    • Transitional phase from childhood to adulthood.

  • Puberty:

    • Defined as the period of sexual maturation leading to the ability to reproduce.

  • Teenage Brain Development:

    • Involves pruning of unused neural connections, enhancing efficiency of neural pathways.

    • The prefrontal cortex, responsible for judgment and impulse control, develops more slowly than the limbic system, which governs emotions.

    • This developmental timing contributes to increased risk-taking behaviors and emotional reactivity in adolescents.

  • Adulthood Physical Development:

    • Important life stages:

      • Emerging Adulthood: Ages 18 to mid-20s.

      • Early Adulthood: Ages 20s to 30s.

      • Middle Adulthood: Ages from early 30s to approximately 65 years.

      • Late Adulthood: Begins at age 65 and continues onwards.

  • Menopause:

    • The end of the menstrual cycle typically occurs around age 50 in women.

    • Men experience a gradual decline in sperm production and speed.

  • Aging & Longevity:

    • Global life expectancy is increasing.

    • Women generally outlive men by approximately 5 years.

    • Aging is associated with declines in sensory abilities, strength, stamina, reaction time, and brain processing speed.

    • Engaging in exercise significantly slows both physical and cognitive aging.

Module 3.4: Cognitive Development

  • Cognition:

    • Encompasses mental activities such as thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

  • Piaget’s Stage Theory:

    • Asserts that children actively construct their understanding of the world through mental frameworks called schemas.

    • Schemas:

      • Defined as mental frameworks or concepts that organize and interpret information.

    • Assimilation:

      • The process of interpreting new experiences using existing schemas without changing the schema.

    • Accommodation:

      • The process of altering existing schemas to incorporate new information that cannot be assimilated.

  • Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development:

    • Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years):

      • Infants experience the world primarily through their senses and actions.

      • Key development: object permanence occurs around 8 months, understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

    • Preoperational Stage (2–7 years):

      • Children begin using language and symbols.

      • Characteristics include egocentrism and engagement in pretend play, but lack the concept of conservation.

    • Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years):

      • Ability to think logically about concrete events and grasp the concept of conservation and mathematical transformations.

    • Formal Operational Stage (12+ years):

      • Capable of abstract reasoning, including hypothetical and moral reasoning.

  • Alternatives to Piaget:

    • Vygotsky’s Scaffolding:

      • Emphasizes the importance of social interaction in learning, suggesting that adults provide temporary support to assist children in reaching higher levels of thinking and understanding.

    • Theory of Mind:

      • Involves the understanding of one’s own and others' mental states, such as beliefs, feelings, and intentions. This ability typically develops during early childhood.

  • Cognitive Development in Adolescence:

    • As children transition into adolescence, reasoning power increases, contributing to more complex thought processes.

    • Moral Development:

      • Encompasses both moral intuition, which refers to gut feelings about right and wrong, and moral action, the choices made based on these intuitions.

  • Cognitive Development in Adulthood:

    • Aging & Memory:

      • There is a noted decline in recall memory with age, whereas recognition memory tends to remain relatively stable.

    • Terminal Decline:

      • A phenomenon where a steeper cognitive decline is observed in the last few years of life.