Inca Empire and the Spanish Conquest Notes

The Inca Empire began around 1400 CE in the Cuzco Valley, Peru.
Rapid expansion led to the largest state in the Americas within 1,000 years.
- Size: Approximately 5,000 kilometers.
- Population: Estimated between 6 to 12 million.

Inca population settled in high-altitude Andean Valleys (e.g., Cusco over 3,000 m).
Challenges associated with high altitude include:
- Intense solar radiation.
- Low temperatures and frequent snow and frost.
- Erratic rainfall patterns.
- Reduced oxygen levels, causing:
- Shortness of breath.
- Headaches and nausea.
- Fatigue and poor sleep quality.

Development of over 40,000 km of paved roads to facilitate communication and travel.
Engineering feats included:
- Tunnels through mountains.
- Causeways across swamps.
- Suspension bridges for crossing valleys.
Strategic placement of food storage and administrative outposts along roads.
Use of runners positioned 1 km apart for quick message delivery (through memory or khipu).

The Inca Empire predominantly expanded through:
- Metima: A form of resettlement that integrated local populations with the threat of intimidation.
Local leaders were offered gifts and public ceremonies in exchange for tribute and recognition of Inca rule.
Expansion was characterized more by invitation than military conquest, unlike the Aztecs.

The Mita system was an administrative model requiring tribute in labor:
- Families and communities worked cooperatively to provide labor for state projects.
- Typically, 1/7 of an individual’s labor (e.g., for every 7 days of work, 1 day for the state).
Tasks included:
- Construction of roads.
- Mining and livestock management.
- Military service and textile weaving.
- Agricultural labor for storage and sustenance in times of need.
Although contentious, the Mita system did a lot for the community and was viewed positively by many.

Led by Francisco Pizarro, who exploited existing political divisions within the Inca Empire (e.g., civil war).
Encounter with Atahualpa, the Inca emperor, at Cajamarca:
- Atahualpa left most of his soldiers outside, behaving in accordance with Indian customs.
- Pizarro’s forces ambushed the Incas after religious overtures were rejected by Atahualpa.
Pizarro captured Atahualpa, leading to a ransom offer of gold and silver from the Inca.
After receiving the ransom, Atahualpa was put on trial and executed.

Discovery of vast silver deposits transformed Potosí into a booming city by the early 1600s:
- Became the largest city in the Americas and one of the largest globally with a population of 120,000.
- Thrived despite harsh living conditions due to agricultural limitations.
Silver extraction relied heavily on indigenous labor through the Mita system:
- Work conditions were brutal; miners faced mercury exposure and cramped environments.
- Spanish justification centered around the notion of religious conversion and civilization.

Potosí produced about 60% of the world’s silver in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Introduced the "piece of 8" as a major global currency facilitating international trade:
- Used in various regions including Spain, the Americas, and Asia (e.g., trade with China).
The influx of silver helped stabilize the Chinese economy and became pivotal for trade across continents.