AP WORLD Unit 9: Globalization (20th & 21st Century)

Globalization

  • Globalization is the process by which trade and technology create a politically, economically, and socially interconnected world.

  • Accelerated in the 20th and 21st centuries due to technological innovations.

  • Effects: Increased communication, global economy, longer life expectancy, faster transport, new forms of energy and agriculture.

New Communication Technologies

  • Purpose: To reduce geographical distance and increase global interconnectedness.

  1. Radio (1920s–1930s)

    1. Allowed direct communication from leaders to citizens (e.g., FDR’s “Fireside Chats”).

    2. Bypassed newspaper editors and bias.


  1. Television (1960s onward)

    1. Became dominant in mass communication and entertainment.

    2. Brought global events (e.g., Vietnam War, Cuban Missile Crisis) into homes.

  1. Cellular Technology (1980s)

    1. Enabled mobile communication across the globe.

    2. Replaced landlines, allowed for global connectivity.

  1. Internet (1990s onward)

    1. Originated as a U.S. military/scientific tool in the 1960s.

    2. Spread to the public in the 1990s → email, online commerce, instant global communication.

    3. Led to a surge in information access and global economic integration.

New Transportation Technologies

  • Goal: Eliminate physical distance between people, goods, and places.

  1. Automobiles

    1. Transformed cities and created suburbs.

    2. Provided individual mobility.

  1. Air Travel (Post-WWII)

    1. Mass air travel became affordable.

    2. Helped connect people across countries and continents.

  1. Shipping Containers

    1. Standardized containers used to ship goods globally.

    2. Lowered shipping costs and allowed companies to move manufacturing to cheaper labor markets.

New Energy Technologies

  1. Petroleum

    1. Replaced coal as the primary energy source.

    2. Used for transportation (cars, planes) and electricity generation.

    3. Led to increased production and pollution.

  1. Nuclear Power

    1. Developed from atomic weapons research.

    2. Clean alternative to fossil fuels, but disasters (e.g., Chernobyl) led to public fear.

New Medical Technologies

  1. Antibiotics

    1. First: Penicillin (1928).

    2. Saved millions of lives, especially during wars.

  1. Vaccines

    1. Mass production in the 20th century (measles, polio, influenza).

    2. Helped reduce child mortality and spread of disease.

  1. Birth Control (1950s)

    1. Oral contraceptives led to declining fertility rates.

    2. Changed demographics (population slowing in developed nations, rising in parts of Africa).

New Agricultural Technologies

  1. Commercial Farming

    1. Replaced subsistence farming in many places.

    2. Relied on machinery like tractors and combines.

    3. More common in wealthier nations.

  1. Green Revolution (1950s–1960s)

    1. Introduced high-yield crops and chemical fertilizers to developing countries (India, Mexico, Indonesia).

    2. Increased food production but caused:

      1. Soil exhaustion (from double cropping).

      2. Pollution from chemical runoff.

Human Impact on the Environment

  • Globalization increased industrialization, urbanization, and commercial agriculture, all of which heavily impacted the environment.

  • The environment includes the physical world and human interaction with it.

Effects on Land

  1. Deforestation

    1. Large-scale clearing of forests for:

      1. Urban sprawl (expanding suburbs due to automobiles).

      2. Commercial farming to feed the growing global population.

    2. Consequences:

      1. Loss of biodiversity (extinction of species).

      2. Soil erosion and increased pollution from pesticide runoff.

  1. Desertification

    1. Fertile land becomes desert due to:

      1. Overuse of poor farmland or mismanagement.

      2. Soil nutrient depletion caused by intensive commercial farming.

    2. Result: Land becomes unsuitable for agriculture.

Effects on Air and Water

  1. Air Pollution

    1. Caused by industrialization relying on fossil fuels.

    2. Notable examples:

      1. The Great Smog of London (1952): 10,000–12,000 deaths.

      2. Mexico City (2002): Estimated 35,000 deaths/year from polluted air.

  1. Water Scarcity

    1. Only 3% of Earth’s water is usable by humans.

    2. Rising population increases demand for agricultural and domestic use.

    3. Many developing nations lack access to clean drinking water (WHO: ~50% of global population affected).

Climate Change

  • Definition: Warming of the planet due to greenhouse gas emissions.

  • Scientific consensus: Planet is warming; the debate is over the cause.

  1. Human vs. Natural Causes Debate

    1. One side: Caused by human activity (fossil fuel use, industry).

    2. Other side: Natural climate cycle.

  2. Global Disagreement on Solutions

    1. Developed nations:

      1. Caused most emissions through industrial growth.

      2. Hesitant to limit emissions due to economic consequences.

    2. Developing nations:

      1. Want to industrialize but may face restrictions on emissions.

      2. Concerned about being denied the same path to prosperity.

The Spread of Free Market Economics

  • Neoliberalism:

    • Economic system emphasizing free market policies:

      • Lower trade barriers (e.g., tariffs)

      • Deregulation of industries

      • Privatization of state-owned businesses

  • Examples:

  1. United States – Ronald Reagan

    1. Reduced taxes for the wealthy

    2. Cut social welfare programs

    3. Deregulated businesses

    4. Increased military spending (Cold War context)

  1. United Kingdom – Margaret Thatcher

    1. Deregulated economy

    2. Reduced income taxes

    3. Privatized public sector industries

    4. Undermined labor unions

  1. Chile – Augusto Pinochet & the Chicago Boys

    1. Introduced free market reforms

    2. Solved inflation, privatized state industries

    3. Reforms were unpopular due to authoritarian enforcement

    4. Set foundation for later economic growth

Global Distribution of Work

  • Shift in Global Economy (Post-1970s):

    • Developed nations moved away from manufacturing → became knowledge economies

    • Developing nations became centers of industrial production

  • Knowledge Economy:

    • Workers use mental capital (e.g., engineers, teachers, tech developers)

    • Enabled by communication & education investments

  • Examples:

  1. Finland

    1. Invested in tech and education in the 1990s

    2. Became a leader in mobile phone/software markets

  1. Japan

    1. Strong in manufacturing, transitioned to banking, finance, and IT

    2. Labor unions grew due to low wages in manufacturing sector

  • Developing Nations as Manufacturing Hubs:

    • Countries like Vietnam, Bangladesh, Mexico, and Honduras

    • Offered cheap labor for multinational production

    • Enabled by global transport and communication tech

Global Economic Institutions

  • Purpose:

    • Support and regulate international trade and development

  1. World Trade Organization (WTO)

    1. Regulates and promotes global trade

    2. Resolves trade disputes

    3. Supports development in poorer nations

  2. Regional Economic Agreements

    1. European Union (EU)

      1. Originated post-WWII as a coal/steel alliance

      2. Became a unified economic and political bloc (1993)

      3. 27 member states function as a single economic unit

    2. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

      1. Lowers trade barriers among member nations

      2. Promotes regional economic growth (e.g., more successful than non-members like Japan or India)

Multinational Corporations

  • Definition:

    • Companies based in one country but operate and sell goods globally.

  • Structure:

    • Use knowledge workers in home country

    • Manufacture in developing nations (low-cost labor)

    • Sell goods on global markets

  • Examples:

  1. Nestlé

    1. HQ: Switzerland

    2. Sources chocolate from West Africa (including low-wage/child labor)

    3. Sells globally

  1. Mahindra & Mahindra

    1. HQ: India

    2. Produces automobiles, farm equipment

    3. Operates in North America, Europe, Africa, Latin America

Liberation and Human Rights

  1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)

    1. Created by the United Nations.

    2. Affirmed rights for all people regardless of race, gender, religion, or nationality.

    3. Aimed to protect vulnerable groups: women, children, refugees.

  1. UNICEF (1946)

    1. UN agency to support children’s welfare, especially in post-WWII recovery.

  1. Women’s Rights

    1. UN World Conference on Women (1975) – global discussion on improving women’s status.

    2. CEDAW (1979): Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women.

      • Called for: women’s suffrage, education equality, reproductive rights, and legal equality.

  1. Negritude Movement (1930s–1940s)

    1. Origin: French-speaking Caribbean and Africa.

    2. Celebrated Black identity and culture.

    3. Influenced anti-colonial and civil rights movements.

  1. Liberation Theology (1960s)

    1. Emerged in Latin America.

    2. Reinterpreted Catholic teachings to support the poor and oppressed.

    3. Influenced the Church’s focus on social justice and equity.

Expanding Access to Education and Politics

  1. Women’s Suffrage

    1. Global feminist movements led to voting rights:

      1. U.S. (1920), Turkey (1934), Japan (1945), and many others.

  1. Civil Rights Movement (U.S.)

    1. Result: Civil Rights Act (1964).

    2. Banned discrimination in employment, education, and public spaces.

  1. India’s Caste Reservation System

    1. Reserved a % of government jobs, university seats, and elected offices for lower-caste communities.

    2. Aimed to reverse historical discrimination.

Environmental and Economic Reform Movements

  1. Environmentalism

    1. Early roots: Romanticism in Europe, U.S. Conservation Movement (Teddy Roosevelt).

    2. Became global in the 20th century due to industrial pollution and environmental degradation.

  1. Greenpeace (Founded 1971)

    1. Global organization using non-violent protest to advocate for the environment.

    2. Known for blockades, direct actions, and raising awareness.

  1. World Fair Trade Organization

    1. Response to labor exploitation by multinational corporations.

    2. Promotes:

      1. Fair wages

      2. Safe working conditions

      3. Job security

      4. Sustainable community investment

Global Culture

  • Definition:

    • Increased cultural exchange due to new communication and transportation technologies created a recognizable global culture, often influenced by Western values.

  1. Music

    1. Reggae (Jamaica): Popularized globally through Bob Marley.

    2. K-pop (South Korea): Global phenomenon through internet and social media (e.g., SEVENTEEN).

  1. Film and Entertainment

    1. Hollywood (U.S.):

      1. Produces top-grossing international films (e.g., Avengers).

      2. Seen as cultural imperialism due to dominance of Western values.

    2. Bollywood (India):

      1. Produces more films than Hollywood.

      2. Known for music, visuals, and melodrama.

      3. Popular in South Asia, Middle East, and diasporas.

  1. Global Sports

    1. Spectator sports became global due to televised events like:

      1. Olympics – over 3 billion viewers.

      2. FIFA World Cup – around 1.5 billion viewers.

    2. Events promote international unity and nationalism.

Global Consumer Culture

  • Definition:

    • A lifestyle focused on spending money on mass-produced goods, popularized after WWII.

  1. Rise of U.S. Consumerism

    1. Post-WWII, U.S. factories shifted from military to consumer goods.

    2. Advertising industry fueled domestic and global demand.

  1. Global Spread of Brands

    1. U.S. brands with global reach:

      1. McDonald’s, KFC, Coca-Cola

      2. Fun Fact: China has the most KFCs in the world.

    2. Global brands from other countries:

      1. Toyota (Japan): Sells in 170+ countries.

  1. Online Retail

    1. Facilitated the global flow of consumer goods.

    2. Examples:

      1. Alibaba (China): Online marketplace with global shipping.

      2. eBay (U.S.): Auctions and sales to 135 million users globally.

Globalization: Pros and Cons

  • Positive Effects of Globalization:

    • Massive economic growth (global output x40 while population x4).

    • Improved standards of living, healthcare, literacy, and education.

    • Global human rights movements gained traction.

  • Negative Effects of Globalization:

    • Unequal distribution of wealth.

    • Exploitation of labor in developing nations.

    • Cultural imperialism and marginalization of local cultures.

Economic Resistance to Globalization

  1. Bretton Woods Conference (1944)

    1. Aimed to promote economic stability after WWII.

  1. Created:

    1. World Bank – Loans for European reconstruction, then poverty reduction in developing nations.

    2. International Monetary Fund (IMF) – Promotes currency stability and international cooperation.

  1. Criticism of Bretton Woods System

    1. Benefited global North at the expense of the global South.

    2. Compared to imperialism (exploitation of poorer economies).

    3. Supported multinational corporations over local interests.

    4. Undermined local economic policies in favor of a global order.

  1. Anti-Globalization Movement

    1. Response to perceived economic injustice of global institutions.

    2. Example: Battle of Seattle (1999)

      1. Protest against the WTO meeting.

      2. 40,000+ activists resisted the new millennium trade agenda.

      3. Marked the rise of a broader anti-globalization movement.

Cultural Resistance to Globalization

  1. Cultural Globalization via Social Media

    1. Platforms like Facebook and Twitter spread Western cultural values and ideas rapidly.

  1. China’s Response

    1. Blamed social media for 2009 Uyghur-Han riots.

    2. Blocked Western platforms.

    3. Introduced Weibo, a Chinese alternative with state censorship.

    4. Goal: Maintain cultural control while still offering digital social spaces.

What Are Supranational Organizations?

  • Formed in response to global interconnectedness (economic, cultural, political).

  • Aim to foster cooperation between nations and address global challenges.

  • Examples already discussed: World Bank, IMF, World Trade Organization (WTO).

The United Nations (UN)

  • Founded: 1945, after WWII

  • Purpose: Prevent war and promote international cooperation (successor to League of Nations).

Main Bodies of the UN

  1. General Assembly

    1. All 193 UN member states are represented.

    2. Two observer states: Vatican City and Palestine.

      1. Vatican: Chooses not to engage in politics.

      2. Palestine: Blocked due to Security Council vetoes.

    3. Responsibilities:

      1. Discuss and create global policy.

      2. Humanitarian efforts (e.g., UNICEF created in 1946).

      3. Became a key voice for decolonized nations in the 20th century.

  1. Security Council

    1. Maintains global peace and security.

    2. 5 Permanent Members (P5) with veto power:

      1. United States, Russia, China, United Kingdom, France.

    3. 10 Rotating Members elected for 2-year terms.

    4. Powers:

      1. Approve military peacekeeping missions.

      2. Impose economic sanctions.

      3. Address violations of international law.

Effectiveness and Limitations of the United Nations Security Council

  1. Criticism:

    1. Veto power has often protected national interests over global peace.

      1. Example: Russia vetoed condemnation of its 2022 invasion of Ukraine.

      2. Example: U.S. and U.K. support of Israel blocks Palestine’s membership.

  1. Successes:

    1. Ceasefire in Liberia (2003) after civil war.

  1. Failures:

    1. Inaction during the Rwandan Genocide (1994) despite peacekeeper presence; ~1 million deaths.

Significance

  • The United Nations is both a product of globalization and a driver of further globalization.

  • Promotes international dialogue, peacekeeping, human rights, and development efforts.

Essential Question

  1. How did the development of new technologies change the world from 1900 to the present? (TEC)

  • New communication tech (radio, TV, internet) increased global interconnectedness.

  • Transportation tech (airplanes, shipping containers) enabled faster movement of goods and people.

  • Medical advances (antibiotics, vaccines, birth control) extended lifespans and changed population trends.

  • Agricultural innovations (Green Revolution) boosted food production but harmed the environment.

  1. How have environmental factors affected human populations over time? (GOV)

  • Pollution from industrialization led to health crises (e.g., Great Smog of London).

  • Deforestation and desertification disrupted ecosystems and livelihoods.

  • Climate change increased global efforts for environmental policy and cooperation.

  • Freshwater scarcity impacted developing nations and caused humanitarian challenges.

  1. What were the causes and effects of environmental changes in the period from 1900 to the present? (ENV)

  • Causes:

    • Fossil fuel use, industrial production, and commercial farming.

    • Overconsumption and waste from consumer culture.

  • Effects:

    • Global warming and rising sea levels.

    • Increased natural disasters and climate-related migration.

    • Environmental movements (e.g., Greenpeace) and global sustainability goals.

  1. How did the global economy change and remain the same between 1900 and the present? (ECN)

  • Changed:

    • Shift from state-directed to neoliberal, free-market policies (e.g., Reagan, Thatcher, Chile).

    • Rise of global trade institutions (WTO, IMF, World Bank).

    • Manufacturing moved to developing countries; developed countries transitioned to knowledge economies.

  • Stayed the Same:

    • Global inequalities persisted; the global South often remained economically disadvantaged.

    • Powerful states and corporations still held disproportionate control over global markets.

  1. How have social categories, roles, and practices been maintained and changed over time? (SIO)

  • Changed:

    • Movements for women’s rights, civil rights, and LGBTQ+ rights expanded globally.

    • Caste reservation in India, global expansion of women’s suffrage, and anti-discrimination laws (e.g., U.S. Civil Rights Act).

  • Maintained:

    • Social hierarchies and marginalization (e.g., caste system, racial inequality) persisted in many societies despite legal reforms.

  1. How and why has globalization changed culture over time? (CDI)

  • Globalization created a blended global culture influenced by Western media, but also shaped by regional contributions (e.g., K-pop, Bollywood).

    • Global sports and entertainment became common cultural reference points.

    • Rise of consumer culture tied to global brands (e.g., McDonald’s, Coca-Cola).

    • Concerns about cultural imperialism led to cultural resistance (e.g., China banning Facebook).

  1. How did responses to increasing globalization differ between 1900 and the present? (CDI)

  • Early 20th Century: Enthusiasm for modernization and industrialization.

  • Late 20th/21st Century:

    • Resistance movements emerged (e.g., Battle of Seattle 1999).

    • Some states promoted local alternatives to global culture and institutions (e.g., China’s Weibo).

    • NGOs and fair-trade movements arose to counter corporate exploitation.

  1. How and why has globalization changed international interactions among states? (GOV)

  • Globalization led to more interdependence and international cooperation, seen in the creation of supranational organizations like the United Nations.

  • UN Security Council works to maintain peace but faces criticism due to veto power and failures (e.g., Rwanda Genocide).

  • Global institutions now play major roles in shaping economic, humanitarian, and diplomatic relations.

Key Terms

  • Globalization: The process of increasing interconnectedness among countries through trade, communication, travel, and culture, especially after 1900.

  • Neoliberalism: An economic approach favoring free markets, deregulation, reduced government spending, and privatization (e.g., Reagan in the U.S., Thatcher in the U.K., Pinochet in Chile).

  • World Trade Organization (WTO): A global institution that regulates trade, resolves disputes, and promotes economic cooperation. Criticized for favoring wealthy nations.

  • International Monetary Fund (IMF): Provides financial support and advice to countries in crisis; aims to stabilize exchange rates and promote trade.

  • World Bank: Offers loans and technical assistance for development projects, especially in poorer nations.

  • Universal Declaration of Human Rights: A 1948 UN document that outlined basic rights and freedoms guaranteed to all people regardless of nationality.

  • Consumer Culture: A way of life focused on buying and using goods, often encouraged by advertising and mass production, especially spread globally after WWII.

  • Cultural Imperialism: The dominance of one culture over others through media and consumer products, often linked to American entertainment and brands.

  • Global Popular Culture: Entertainment, styles, and trends shared across countries (e.g., K-pop, Hollywood films, global sports).

  • Green Revolution: The introduction of high-yield crops and chemical fertilizers in the mid-20th century to increase food production, especially in developing nations.

  • Multinational Corporation: A business that operates in multiple countries (e.g., Nestlé, Toyota), often with headquarters in one nation and factories in another.

  • Knowledge Economy: An economy based on intellectual skills and services rather than physical labor or manufacturing (e.g., Japan, Finland).

  • Caste Reservation System (India): A policy that reserves education and job positions for lower castes to address historic discrimination.

  • Liberation Theology: A movement in Latin America that reinterpreted Christian teachings to emphasize social justice and helping the poor.

  • Negritude Movement: A literary and ideological movement in the 1930s–40s that celebrated Black culture and identity, especially in French-speaking Africa and the Caribbean.

  • Fair Trade: A movement to ensure producers in developing countries receive fair wages and safe working conditions.

  • UNICEF: A UN agency established in 1946 to provide emergency food and healthcare to children, especially in postwar areas.

  • General Assembly (UN): The main body of the UN where all member states participate; focuses on global issues like humanitarian aid and education.

  • Security Council (UN): A UN body responsible for maintaining peace and security; includes five permanent members with veto power.

  • Veto Power: The authority of the five permanent Security Council members to block any UN resolution, even if all other members agree.

  • Battle of Seattle (1999): A major anti-globalization protest against the WTO, representing growing concern over global economic inequality.

  • Weibo: A Chinese social media platform created as a state-controlled alternative to Western sites like Facebook and Twitter.

  • Environmentalism: A movement advocating for the protection of the environment, especially in response to industrialization and climate change.