Philosophy

Discussion of how the political and social environment changed dramatically after Alexander the Great.
- City-states (e.g., Athens) were affected by the rise of larger empires, specifically the Roman Empire.
- These larger political entities displaced people from their traditional city-state environments.
- Individuals experienced a shift from communal reliance to individualized survival in urban settings.

Rise of urban living led to an increase in individualism.
- Older ways of life provided meaning and community support in city-states but waned over time.
- Individuals relied more on personal resources rather than community support.
This shift in community dynamics led to the emergence of new philosophical schools.

The core philosophy focused on individual pleasure and happiness.
Epicureans advocated for a measured approach to pleasure, avoiding indulgence.
- They emphasized living a good, happy life through the pursuit of pleasure over a long-term horizon.
- Friendship and freedom from fear were considered essential for achieving happiness.
- Freedom from fear centered on two critical forms of anxiety identified
  - Fear of death.
  - Fear of divine judgment.
Epicureans rejected these fears as false beliefs and emphasized philosophy as a means to dispel them.

Epicureans held a materialistic and atomistic view of existence:
- Death is seen as a natural process of the dispersal of atoms, with no inherent pain associated with it.
- God's role was viewed as indifferent, with divine beings removed from human affairs.
- Epicurus described death as akin to a deep, dreamless sleep, thus no reason for fear.

Stoics offered a contrasting philosophical perspective during changing times.
- Emphasized the mind and psychology as the ultimate refuge.
They distinguished the things controllable by individuals from those that are not:
- Individuals have control over their reactions and interpretations of events, while external circumstances are beyond control.
Stoic optimism emerged from this perspective, suggesting individuals must feel at peace with what cannot be controlled.

Stoicism extended the notion of community beyond local city-states.
- Individuals belonged to a larger universal community, aligning with divine or natural law.
- Stoicism posited that all events occur according to a cosmic plan, guiding individuals toward an acceptable understanding of their predicaments.

Happiness, defined as $eudaimonia$ , emphasizes control over one's internal thoughts and responses rather than external occurrences.
- Stoics believed that true happiness depends solely on virtue and personal integrity.
Contrary to the Epicureans, Stoics proposed that happiness comes through living in accordance with nature and accepting the divine order unexpectedly dealt to them.
Stoicism held that all experiences, whether perceived as good or bad, depend upon individual judgments about those experiences.

Equanimity is important in Stoicism, representing a steady state amidst upheaval and change.
Stoics encouraged a balance: pursuing natural goals but remaining untouched by successes or failures.

The Stoics posited that the universe is ordered by a rational principle, connecting God, reason, and nature.
- The divine presence is imbued within all existence, as every occurrence follows a predetermined design.
Stoicism incorporates a belief in pantheism, recognizing a divine essence in all aspects of nature.

Virtues arise only through harmony with nature and moral law, becoming the locus for Stoic ethical behavior.
- Duty is seen as transcending personal gain, aiming for alignment with a greater divine principle.
Stoics stressed the importance of intention over outcomes in evaluating ethical behavior.
- They encouraged individuals to focus on good intentions, regardless of the results of their actions.

Four cardinal virtues identified by Stoics:
- Wisdom: Reflection before action, aligned with reason.
- Courage: Facing adversity and embracing challenges.
- Justice: Fairness, honesty, and prioritizing communal benefit.
- Temperance: Moderation, emotional balance, self-discipline.

The comparative analysis of Epicurean and Stoic philosophies highlights differing approaches toward happiness, control, and duty.
- The growing individualism in society led to the rise of philosophies that catered to personal empowerment in existential crises.
Stoic ideas later influenced Christian doctrines by integrating notions of natural law and a moral compass guided by divine principles.