Introduction to the Science of Psychology

Introduction to the Science of Psychology

Chapter 1 Overview

• Introduction to the Science of Psychology

Parallel Lives

• Anaïs Bordier, a fashion design student in London, discovers an image on Facebook resembling her.

• The image is a screenshot from a YouTube video featuring Samantha Futerman.

• Both women share identical birth dates: November 19, 1987.

What Is Psychology?

• Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

• Psychologists may investigate behaviors such as:

  • The emotional responses of Sam and Anaïs upon discovering each other.

  • Their reactions to the concept of being identical twins separated at birth.

• Two major types of research in psychology include:

  • Basic Research: Aimed at increasing scientific knowledge.

  • Applied Research: Focused on immediate practical applications.

Aims of Psychology

• Four primary goals of psychology:

  • Describe: To portray behaviors and mental processes.

  • Explain: To provide reasons for behavior and mental processes.

  • Predict: To foresee potential behaviors or outcomes.

  • Change Behavior: To modify behaviors through various methods.

• Example inquiry: Can mindfulness meditation reduce anxiety among school children?

Nature and Nurture

Insights from Twin Research

• Insights indicate that:

  • Identical twins possess identical genes (nature).

  • Different environments (nurture) result from being reared in separate households.

• Findings show that identical twins, even when raised apart, often display similar personalities.

• Twin research aids in understanding various conditions, including:

  • Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

  • Intelligence and sexual orientation.

The Roots of Psychology (Part 1)

Ancient and Medieval Scholars

• Plato (427–347 BCE): Believed in pre-birth knowledge, asserting that truth exists in the soul before birth and that nature contributes to cognition.

• Aristotle (384–322 BCE): Emphasized empiricism, arguing that reality is understood through perception and sensory experiences.

  • His work laid groundwork for the empirical method, involving objective observation to collect data.

  • He engaged with nature vs. nurture discussions.

The Roots of Psychology (Part 2)

Continuing Ancient and Medieval Insights

• Ibn al-Haytham (965–1039 CE): Mathematician known as the “father of optics”; emphasized empiricism in understanding vision.

• René Descartes (1596–1650 CE): Proposed dualism, the idea that the body and mind interact as separate entities.

  • Famous for the phrase “I think, therefore I am.”

The Roots of Psychology (Part 3)

Psychology Is Born

• Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920): Established the first psychology lab at the University of Leipzig, is known as the “father of psychology.”

• Advocated for introspection, a technique for examining one's own conscious activities.

The Roots of Psychology (Part 4)

Early Psychological Schools

Structuralism

• Edward Titchener (1867–1927): Developed structuralism, which utilized introspection to study the components of the mind.

  • Focused on subjective experiences rather than objective measurements.

Functionalism

• William James (1842–1910): Introduced functionalism, which emphasized the purpose of thoughts and behaviors in facilitating adaptation to the environment.

  • Offered the first psychology courses at Harvard University.

The Roots of Psychology (Part 5)

Pioneering Women in Psychology

• Mary Whiton Calkins (1863−1930): Denied PhD from Harvard; established her own lab at Wellesley College and became the first female president of the APA.

• Margaret Floy Washburn (1871−1939): First woman awarded a PhD in psychology.

The Roots of Psychology (Part 6)

Breakthrough Achievements in Diversity

• Francis Sumner (1895–1954): Became the first African American to earn a PhD in psychology (1920). Founder of Howard University’s Psychology Department.

• Inez Beverly Prosser (1897–1934): Prominent African American female; earned her PhD 13 years after Sumner.

• Mamie Phipps Clark (1917–1983): First Black female to earn a PhD from Columbia University, explored prejudice's impact on child development.

The Roots of Psychology (Part 7)

Further Contributions to Diversity

• George Sanchez (1906-1972): First Latino psychologist to earn a PhD (1934).

• Martha Bernal (1931-2001): First Latina psychologist to earn a PhD (1962).

• Current demographics of the field (APA, 2018):

  • 84% White

  • 5% Hispanic

  • 4% Black

  • 4% Asian

  • 0.3% American Indian/Alaska Native

  • 1.5% Multiracial

Perspectives in Psychology

Psychoanalytic Perspective

• Sigmund Freud: Focused on abnormal mind functions, asserting that personality development is influenced significantly by early life experiences.

  • Developed psychoanalysis (talk therapy).

  • Noted the "Freud Problem": many theories lack scientific backing.

Behavioral Perspective

• Suggests that behavior and personality are determined mostly by learning and conditioning.

• Key contributors:

  • Ivan Pavlov: Classical conditioning with dogs.

  • John B. Watson: Founded behaviorism, defining psychology as a study of observable behaviors.

  • B.F. Skinner: Studied operant conditioning, emphasizing rewards and punishments in learning.

Humanistic Perspective

• Asserts that human nature is fundamentally positive, steering growth.

• Notable figures include:

  • Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

  • Challenged the established views of psychoanalysis and behaviorism; led to the emergence of positive psychology.

Cognitive Perspective

• Focuses on mental processes that direct behavior, examined by psychologists such as George Miller.

  • Sample areas of study include memory and cognitive neuroscience, investigating the relationships between physiological processes in the brain and behavior.

Evolutionary Perspective

• Examines behaviors and mental processes as products of evolution, influenced by Charles Darwin.

  • Human traits have evolved through natural selection, affecting various aspects like personality, intelligence, and risk-taking behaviors.

Biological Perspective

• Relies on physiological explanations for behavior and mental processes, investigating genetics and hormonal influences.

• Neuroscience, the study of the brain and nervous system, falls under this perspective.

Sociocultural Perspective

• Explores the effects of social interactions and culture on behavior and mental processes.

• Significant contributors include Lev Vygotsky and Mamie Phipps Clark.

• Research typically concentrates on WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) cultures.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

• Integrates biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors to explain behavior.

• These factors interact to shape behaviors and mental processes, particularly relevant in health research, with examples like Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD).

Summary: Perspectives in Psychology

Group Activity: Perspectives Application

• Activity Overview:

  • Select a movie or show with a universally familiar scene.

  • Analyze a character exhibiting risky behavior using at least two psychological perspectives.

How Do Psychologists Do Research? (Part 1)

The Scientific Method

• The scientific method is the systematic approach used to conduct research.

  • Involves exploration, critical thinking, and observation.

  • Helps minimize human error in research.

• Experiment: A controlled procedure making observations or manipulations to influence participants’ thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

How Do Psychologists Do Research? (Part 2)

Steps in the Scientific Method

1. Develop a question.

2. Develop a hypothesis.

3. Design a study and collect data.

4. Analyze the data.

5. Share findings.

Example Study Process

• Researchers explore whether subjective well-being influences immunity:

  • Develop question: Do interventions that increase happiness lead to better health?

  • Conduct study

  • Report in journal about findings relating happiness and health outcomes.

Step-by-Step Method Description

Step 1: Developing a Question

• Begin with observations about a topic.

  • Review existing literature to inform research questions.

Step 2: Developing a Hypothesis

• Formulate testable predictions guided by existing theories.

  • Define operationally what will be studied.

Step 3: Design Study and Collect Data

• Precise definitions of variables are necessary (examples include cooperation or intoxication).

• Controlled manner is crucial to reduce error in data collection.

Step 4: Analyzing the Data

• Use statistics (descriptive and inferential) to assess whether results support hypotheses and contribute to existing theories.

Step 5: Sharing Findings

• Dissemination includes presentations, publications, and discussions.

• Peer review is essential to uphold research integrity.

Research Basics

Key Terminology

• Variables: Measurable characteristics that can change.

• Population & Sample: A population is the entire group of interest, and a sample is a subset involved in research.

• Random Sample: Each population member has equal selection chances; Representative Sample: Characteristics align with the overall population.

Power of Nurture

• Observing differences between Anaïs and Samantha

  • Physical variations in height and skin tone.

  • Psychological differences in stress experiences.

• Investigates when and how environmental influences shape developed traits.

Types of Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research Characteristics

• Descriptive Research: Investigates phenomena for a foundational understanding. However, it lacks the ability to establish causal relationships.

Types of Descriptive Research

1. Naturalistic Observation: Participants studied in their environment for insights.

   • Caution with operational definitions due to observer impacts.

2. Case Study: Intensive examination of an individual or group, providing detailed qualitative insights but not allowing generalizations.

3. Survey Method: Rapid data collection via questionnaires but risks inaccuracies depending on question phrasing and response rates.

Wording of Survey Questions Influences Responses

• Example from research: Varying terminology in survey questions can substantially impact public responses to climate-related queries.

Correlational Method (Part 1)

Understanding Correlation

• Examines the relationships between variables:

  • Correlation: Variable association measure.

  • Positive (+) or negative (−) correlations affect interpretation of data.

Correlation Coefficient

• The strength and direction of relationship between variables are quantified (denoted as r).

• Ranges from -1.00 to +1.00; example can be the association between shoe size and creativity.

Directionality Issues

• Directionality cannot be determined through correlation:

  • Does violent video game play induce aggression, or do aggressive individuals prefer such games?

Experimental Method (Part 1)

Understanding Experiments

• Experimental Method: Focuses on manipulation of independent variables to ascertain cause and effect.

• Random assignment is critical to ensure participant equivalency.

Experimental Method (Part 2)

Designing Experiments

• Hypothesis formulation, control of variables, and operational definitions are key. Example: Investigating caffeine’s effect on attention flow.

Experimental Method (Part 3)

Key Terminology

• Independent Variable: Manipulated variable, and Dependent Variable: Measured outcome. Extraneous variables can skew results if not controlled. Calculating confounding variables is also essential.

Minimizing Bias in Experiments

Strategies to Avoid Bias

• Conducting double-blind studies:

  • Convenient for ensuring that neither researcher nor participant knows about treatment assignments to prevent biases from influencing results.

Reliability and Validity

• Reliability: Consistency of measurement.

• Validity: Accuracy of data collection methods; distinguishing between internal validity (correct measures) and external validity (generalizable findings).

Strengths and Limitations of Experiments

Pros

• Establish cause-effect relationships

  • Increased control of experimental conditions.

Cons

• Ecological validity may suffer, and distractions like the Hawthorne effect could change participant behavior.

Summary of Research Methods

SpongeBob on the Brain

• Study on effects of cartoon exposure in preschool children.

  • Randomized participants into three groups: watching SpongeBob, educational program, or drawing.

  • Outcome: Cognitive declines observed after watching SpongeBob.

Research Ethics (Part 1)

Ethical Standards

• Psychologists uphold dignity and respect in human study;

  • Must avoid harm, ensure welfare, maintain research accuracy, and safeguard human dignity.

Research Ethics (Part 2)

Institutional Review Board (IRB) Role

• Reviews research proposals to protect participant rights and welfare.

• Emphasizes confidentiality and informed consent to ensure ethical research conduct.

Research Ethics (Part 3)

Importance of Informed Consent

• Participants must acknowledge understanding of the study, with the option to withdraw.

• Debriefing is essential afterward to ensure clarity of purpose and any necessary deception.

Group Activity: Citation Practice

• Exercise to understand proper citation practices using APA styles.

• Highlight importance in avoiding plagiarism and maintaining academic integrity.

Career Connections: Communicating with the Public

• Importance of clarity in communications regarding research findings, particularly in avoiding misinterpretation by the media.

• Recommendations for better communication include simplicity in language and avoiding biases.

Sam and Anaïs: “Anything Is Possible”

• Continued contact developments between families after initial discovery.

  • Describes psychological effects of connection and potential influences regarding identity and personal growth.