Comprehensive Study Guide for Japanese and Aztec History

Effects of Isolation During the Edo Period

• Vocabulary and Definitions:
  • Emperor: The hereditary ruler of Japan who lived in Kyoto. While held in high respect, the Emperor possessed almost no actual power.
  • Daimyo: A feudal lord responsible for a specific region or domain within Japan.
  • Shogun: The leader of the military government in Japan, residing in Edo. The Shogun held the true authority during the majority of the Edo period, notably forbidding Christianity and foreign trade except with the Dutch.
  • Koku: A Japanese measurement of rice, approximately equivalent to $175\,\text{litres}$.
  • Bakufu: The centralized military government headed by the Shogun.
  • Edict: A legal order or public command issued by an authority. Messengers would read these aloud from scrolls to villages.
  • Han: The local government in each domain or province, ruled by a Daimyo.
  • Entourage: A group of attendants accompanying a person of high rank.
  • Metropolis: A large, significant city within a country or region.
  • Opulent: Characterized by luxury or lavishness.
  • Aesthetics: A sense or appreciation of what is considered beautiful.

The Beginning of the Edo Era of Great Peace

• Historical Context: Before the Edo period, Japan was a site of constant warfare and bloodshed as warlords fought for land. Armed commoners and women were common, as constant protection was necessary.
• The Three Unifiers:
  • Oda Nobunaga ($1534-1582$): Reduced Buddhist control, constructed castles, and introduced administrative practices for unification.
  • Toyotomi Hideyoshi ($1537-1598$): Created a standing army, forced a choice between farming and being a warrior, and established a formal class structure.
  • Tokugawa Ieyasu ($1543-1616$): Established the government in Edo, finalized Japan's unification, and is considered the most famous of the three.
• Ruling Styles Metaphor: "If confronted by a caged nightingale that would not sing, Nobunaga would kill the bird, Hideyoshi would force it to sing, and Ieyasu would wait for it to sing."

Reasons for Japanese Isolation and the Sakoku Edict

• Foreign Influences and Concerns:
  • Christianity/Western Ideas: Tokugawa Ieyasu feared Western ideas and saw Japanese leaders swearing loyalty to Jesus Christ as a threat to Shogunal authority.
  • Sovereignty: Desire to preserve Japan’s safety against foreign powers.
  • Restrictions: Foreign ships were restricted to the island of Deshima in Nagasaki Bay.
• Religious Conflict: Hideyoshi ordered missionaries to leave in $1587$ and later executed $26$ Franciscan missionaries. The Bakufu feared that Christian Daimyo would follow spiritual leaders over the Shogun.
• Closed Country Edict of $1635$ (Sakoku):
  • Japanese ships and citizens were strictly forbidden from traveling abroad.
  • Attempting to go abroad or returning from overseas resulted in execution.
  • Southern barbarians teaching Christianity would be imprisoned.
  • Portuguese ships were banned; any ship disobeying would be destroyed and its crew executed.

Japanese Feudal Society and Hierarchy

• Hierarchy Breakdown:
  • Shogun and Emperor: The Shogun held true power and enforced laws, while the Emperor was a figurehead.
  • Daimyo: Landowners and patrons of the arts. They were divided into three sections based on loyalty to the Shogun (most trusted, Tokugawa family members, and those with least standing due to past opposition).
  • Samurai: Inherited positions. During the Edo peace, their role shifted from warriors to civil administrators. They followed the Bushido code (cultural, moral, and intellectual development).
  • Farmers: Positioned high due to rice production but lived Difficult lives.
    • Honbyakusho: Principal farmers owning land/supervising.
    • Hyakusho: Ordinary farmers who owned nothing.
  • Artisans: Skilled craftsmen who created goods and formed the growing middle class.
  • Merchants: Sellers who gained wealth from labor; despite being looked down upon socially, they established Japan’s banking industry and spread trends.
  • Outcasts (Eta): Involved in slaughtering animals, tanning, and executions. Shunned due to Buddhist doctrine regarding the dead; they lived in separate communities.
  • Non-Humans (Hinin): Entertainment class (Geisha, actors). killing a Hinin was not punishable by law. Geisha were women trained in dancing, witty conversation, tea ceremonies, and singing.

Japanese Urbanization and Culture During Isolation

• The Three Major Metropolises:
  • Edo (Tokyo): The capital and center of governance/military power where the Shogun lived.
  • Kyoto: The former capital; center of publishing and refined artwork.
  • Osaka: Known as the "Kitchen of Japan" due to its massive markets and rice trading center.
• Urbanization Effects: Economices of domains intertwined; castle towns grew to serve the Daimyo; and needs for travel networks, fire protection, and police forces emerged.
• Popular Culture Developments:
  • Kabuki Theatre: Popular with merchants; featured action and moral dilemmas. Performed by men with white makeup. At one point, the Bakufu banned women and then later forced men to shave their heads to reduce attractiveness.
  • Banraku Theatre: Puppet theatre performed by the Eta; popular among commoners.
  • Woodblock Images: Inexpensive, nature-themed prints available to all.
  • Literature: Birth of the Haiku; printing books became a private industry, though topics like politics and Christianity were taboo.

The Meiji Period: The Transition to Modern Japan

• Context ($1790-1912$): The end of the Edo period and the beginning of modern Japan.
• Key Vocabulary:
  • Consensus: Agreement reached through common accord.
  • Czar: The Russian Monarch.
  • Assimilate: Giving up aspects of identity to join a larger group.
  • Commodore: A US Navy rank (e.g., Matthew C. Perry).
  • Inviolable: Not to be violated or injured.
  • Coup (Coup d’Etat): Sudden, violent overthrow of government.
• The Ainu: Indigenous people of Japan located in Hokkaido; treated as outcasts during the Meiji period.

External Crises: Contact with Foreign Powers

• Russia: The first to arrive in the $19\text{th}$ century. An envoy attacked Japanese settlements, causing intellectuals to warn the Bakufu of external threats. Russia eventually turned away due to wars in Europe.
• Europe and the "Don’t Think Twice" Edict: Britain traded indirectly through the Dutch. Japan acquired European books, making Deshima a center of knowledge. Fearing a European conspiracy, the Shogun passed the "Don’t Think Twice" edict to expel foreigners.
• United States: Commodore Matthew Perry used "Gunboat Diplomacy" in the mid-$1800\text{s}$, pointing warships at Edo. Japan was forced to sign the Harris Treaty, allowing Americans to live in Edo and Osaka under their own laws. This led to civil unrest and the downfall of the Bakufu.
• China: Japan was shocked by China’s defeat in the Opium Wars and realized they must become as strong as Western nations to survive.

Meiji Political and Economic Transformations

• The Charter Oath ($1868$): The new constitution outlines:
  1. National policy decided by deliberative assemblies/public discussion.
  2. Unity of all classes in administration.
  3. Abolition of the feudal system and freedom of occupation.
  4. Merit-based rewards instead of hereditary status.
  5. Seeking global knowledge.
• Government Shift: Power restored to the Emperor; Japan became an Oligarchy. The capital moved from Kyoto to Tokyo. Japan modeled its government (Dajokan) after Germany.
• Economy: Transitioned from agrarian subsistence to industrialization and capitalism. The Matsukata Masayoshi policies reduced spending, established the Dept. of Agriculture, and privatized industries (leading to Zaibatsu cliques).
• Military: Modernized with Western technology and conscription, which broke down class differences but caused loss of honor for the Samurai class.

Aztec and Spanish Worldviews and Social Structures

• Aztec Social Structure:
  • Emperor (Huey Tlatoani): "The Great Speaker," elected by a Council of Wise Men. Could be removed if incompetent.
  • Nobility (Pipiltin): Ruling class, high-ranking warriors, and priests who owned land.
  • Middle Class (Macehualtin): Could own land and improve status through military honor. Included the Pochteca (long-distance traders).
  • Lower Class (Mayeques): Peasants tied to the land who paid heavy taxes.
• Spanish Social Structure:
  • Nobility: Divided into Granados, Don, and Hidalgo. Disdained manual labor.
  • Commoners ($90\%$): Mostly feudal peasants working on estates.
• Aztec Religion and Science: Worship centered on seasonal cycles and astronomy. Believed human sacrifice kept the world in balance by providing blood to gods.
• Spanish Beliefs: Roman Catholic dominance. Heresy was punishable by death at the stake. Belief in heaven/hell and the suffering of Jesus.

The Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire

• Initial Meeting: Moctezuma believed Corts might be the returning god Quetzalcoatl. Mesengers described Spanish cannons as "magical farting creatures that farted out big balls that combusted trees."
• Ambitions: Aztecs sought tribute and captives for sacrifice; Spanish sought an empire to compete with Portugal and wealth from gold/silver.
• Key Conquest Strategies:
  1. Interpreters: La Malinche (Dona Marina) and Geronimo de Aguilar translated between Spanish, Mayan, and Nahuatl.
  2. Alliances: Corts allied with the Tlaxcalans, who hated Aztec rule.
  3. Trickery and Disease: Use of surprise attacks and the unintended spread of Smallpox.
• Key Battles:
  • Massacre of the Unarmed Aztec.
  • Noche Triste: The "Sorrowful Night" when the Spanish fled Tenochtitlan.
  • The Final Siege: The Spanish gained control of the water, starving the city into submission.
• Contrast in Warfare: Aztecs fought to capture for sacrifice with rules of diplomacy; Spanish fought to kill and destroy cities to force submission.