Unit 5 Notes: 1844 - 1877
Unit 5.1-5.5 Notes: 1844 - 1877 Manifest Destiny, Mexican-American War, Sectional Tension, Civil War, Reconstruction
5.2 Manifest Destiny
Essential Question: What were the causes and effects of westward expansion from 1844 - 1877?
Context:
Americans have had the desire to expand westward since colonial times, but the idea of Manifest Destiny spread in the 1840s and 50s.
Americans had their sights on Western territory, also Latin America, Cuba, and the Caribbean.
Driven by:
Nationalism
Population increase
Rapid economic development
Technological advancements
Reform ideals
5.2 - Conflicts over Texas
Background:
After winning independence from Spain in 1823, Mexico tried to attract Anglo settlers into Texas.
Moses Austin and later his son Stephen F. Austin obtained a land grant, bringing 300 Anglo families into Texas.
By 1830, American settlers (and enslaved people) outnumbered Mexicans 3 to 1.
Mexico escalated tensions:
Outlawed slavery.
Required all immigrants to be Roman Catholic.
Most settlers refused compliance.
Mexico closed Texas to further American settlement, but Americans ignored this prohibition.
Revolt and Independence:
1836, General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna declared himself dictator of Mexico.
Abolished central government in Mexico.
Tried to enforce laws in Texas.
Sam Houston revolted and declared Texas independent.
Drafted a pro-slavery constitution.
Battle of the Alamo:
Mexican troops defeated Texan defenders, killing all participants.
Battle of San Jacinto:
Texan troops surprised Mexican forces, captured Santa Anna and secured Texas independence, though Mexican legislators rejected the treaty.
Sam Houston applied for statehood, denied by President Jackson and Van Buren due to slavery concerns and fear of war with Mexico.
John Tyler attempted to annex Texas in 1844, but the U.S. Senate rejected it.
5.2 - Conflicts over Maine and Oregon
Boundary Disputes in Maine:
1840s, the boundary between Maine and British Canadian New Brunswick was ambiguous.
Anti-British sentiments were prevalent due to past conflicts like the American Revolution and the War of 1812.
The Aroostook War or the “Battle of the Maps” occurred over these tensions.
Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842):
Signed between U.S. Sec. of State Daniel Webster and British ambassador Lord Alexander Ashburton.
Disputed territory divided between Maine and British Canada.
Set the boundary of the Minnesota territory; Iron-rich Mesabi Range remained U.S. territory.
Boundary Dispute in Oregon:
The Oregon territory was claimed by Spain, Russia, Great Britain, and the U.S.
Spain relinquished claims in the Adams-Onis Treaty (1819).
Britain claimed it due to the Hudson’s Bay Company’s fur trade, although few British settled there.
The U.S. claimed it based on:
Exploration of the Columbia River by Captain Robert Gray in 1792.
Lewis and Clark expeditions in 1805.
Established fur trading posts in Astoria, Oregon.
Success of American farms in the Willamette Valley.
By 1844, Americans believed annexation of Oregon Territory, Texas, and Mexican California was their Manifest Destiny.
5.2 - The Election of 1844 and Annexation of Texas
Election of 1844:
The Texas issue and the expansion of slavery divided the Democratic Party.
Northern Democrats opposed annexation, favoring former President Martin Van Buren.
Southern Whigs supported slavery and annexation, backing John C. Calhoun of South Carolina.
James K. Polk emerged as the Democratic nominee, advocating for the annexation of Texas and California, and the reoccupation of the Oregon Territory with the rallying cry of "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!"
Whig candidate Henry Clay's indecision on Texas alienated New York voters, leading to Polk's victory.
Annexation of Texas:
As Tyler left office, he pushed for Texas' annexation through a joint resolution that required a simple majority rather than a two-thirds Senate vote, which was more difficult.
Polk inherited the issue of managing Mexico's reaction to Texas’ annexation.
Dividing Oregon - 1846:
Polk quickly backed down from the “Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!” slogan, signing a treaty with Britain that divided Oregon at the 49th parallel.
The U.S. granted Vancouver Island and navigation rights of the Columbia River to Britain.
Northerners viewed this treaty as a betrayal, as it removed a potential source for future free states.
To prevent war with both Britain and Mexico, the treaty was approved.
5.2 - Settlement of the Western Territories
Post-acquisition of Texas, California, and Oregon, Americans traversed the Great American Desert for more fertile land in the West.
Fur Trader’s Frontier:
Mountain Men were the earliest non-native settlers of the Far West.
Engaged in fur trade with Native Americans.
Notable figures included James Beckwourth, Jim Bridger, Kit Carson, Jedediah Smith who provided early trail information.
Overland Trails:
In 1860s, hundreds of thousands migrated west to California and Oregon.
Followed overland trails such as Oregon, California, Santa Fe, and Mormon.
Generally started from Missouri or Iowa, covering approximately 15 miles a day for several months, needing to cross the mountains before snowfall.
Major dangers included American Indians, disease, and depression.
Mining Frontier:
The 1848 gold rush attracted a diverse crowd to California, Colorado, Nevada, and the Dakotas.
This caused a significant population surge in California.
By the 1860s, around a third of miners were Chinese.
Farming Frontier:
Many families moved westward to establish farms.
The government facilitated land acquisition by offering small plots.
Moving westward was primarily an opportunity for the middle class due to cost (approximately $200-300).
Life in the West was arduous, leading to the creation of small communities similar to those in the East, complete with schools, churches, clubs, and political parties.
Urban Frontiers:
The rise of western cities was driven by railroads, mineral wealth, and agriculture.
Cities like San Francisco and Denver emerged rapidly following gold and silver rushes, acting as vital supply centers for travelers.
5.2 - Foreign Commerce and Post Civil War Expansion
Foreign Commerce:
U.S. imports and exports surged as western agricultural products were produced alongside manufactured goods.
Contributing factors include:
Regular transatlantic voyages.
New England merchants capitalizing on the whaling industry.
Improved ship designs, enabling faster travel times, e.g., it took only 89 days to sail from California to New York.
Affordable steamships facilitated expansion.
Commodore Matthew Perry opened Asia to American trade through the Kanagawa Treaty.
Expansion after the Civil War:
From 1865 to 1877, issues of slavery and the Civil War overshadowed expansion desires, although they did not halt it.
Example: In 1867, U.S. Sec. of State William Seward purchased Alaska, often referred to as "Seward's Folly."
5.3 Manifest Destiny and the Mexican-American War
Essential Question: What are the causes and effects of the Mexican-American War?
Context:
Following a tradition of American settlement in Texas, the Mexican government restricted American activities in the area, which contributed to tensions that resulted in the U.S. annexation of Texas.
Mexican outrage over this annexation, combined with President Polk’s expansionist ambitions, led to the outbreak of war between the two nations.
5.3 - Immediate Causes of the War
President Polk dispatched John Slidell to accomplish two objectives:
Persuade Mexico to sell California and New Mexico to the U.S.
Resolve the border dispute by establishing the Rio Grande as Texas’s border.
Mexico rejected Slidell's overtures, insisting the Texas border was the Nueces River.
Immediate Causes of the War:
While awaiting a response from Slidell, Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to move troops into the disputed area.
After Mexican troops captured a fort in this territory, Polk claimed that the U.S. had been invaded, while Mexico claimed it was defending its own land.
Northern Whigs opposed the war; however, due to Polk’s assertions, a majority of both sides supported the war effort, and Congress approved Polk’s declaration of war.
Military Campaigns:
The war involved small American groups fighting within Mexican territory.
General Stephen Kearney successfully captured New Mexico and Southern California with fewer than 1,500 troops.
N. California was declared independent by John C. Fremont, forming the “Bear Flag Republic.”
General Zachary Taylor commanded troops in Mexico, having 6,000 men cross the Rio Grande.
After Victory at Buena Vista, Polk ordered Winfield Scott into Central Mexico, where he captured Mexico City in 1847.
5.3 - Consequences of the War
Despite many setbacks, the Mexican government refused to concede until Mexico City fell.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848):
Negotiated by Nicholas Trist; highly favorable to the U.S.
Mexico recognized the Rio Grande as Texas’s southern boundary.
The Mexican Cession transferred California and New Mexico to the U.S.
The U.S. paid Mexico $15 million and assumed responsibility for any claims by Americans against Mexico.
Some Whigs opposed this treaty, viewing it as a maneuver to expand slavery.
Some Southern Democrats opposed it because they desired the annexation of all of Mexico to further extend slavery.
Wilmot Proviso:
A bill proposed to address tensions surrounding the Mexican Cession specifically regarding slavery.
Proposed by David Wilmot to prohibit slavery in territories acquired from Mexico, preserving these lands for White settlers and reducing competition for jobs.
Passed the House of Representatives twice but failed in the Senate.
Impact:
This intensified the debate over slavery's extension, with the North interpreting it as a Southern attempt to extend their power, ultimately contributing to the onset of the Civil War.
5.4 The Compromise of 1850
Essential Question: What similarities and differences existed in how regional attitudes affected federal policy after the Mexican-American War?
Context:
The ramifications of Manifest Destiny and U.S. expansion heightened the slavery debate, with Northerners and abolitionists eager to limit slavery's westward movement for economic protection, while the South sought expansion for plantation agriculture.
Southern Expansion:
Southerners were dissatisfied with the Missouri Compromise as it barred slavery in the Louisiana Purchase.
Upset with the Mexican Cession's exclusion of Southern lands, some Southerners took matters into their own hands to expand plantation agriculture.
Ostend Manifesto:
Polk's attempts to purchase Cuba for $100 million were rebuffed by Spain.
Several Southern attempts to seize Cuba were thwarted and resulted in executions.
Franklin Pierce sent delegates to Belgium to negotiate the secret Ostend Manifesto for Cuba, which leaked to the press, provoking outrage among antislavery members of Congress.
Walker Expedition:
William Walker attempted to seize Baja California from Mexico in 1853, later seizing control of Nicaragua in 1855, gaining U.S. recognition in 1856, only to be executed by an invading Central American coalition.
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850):
A treaty aimed at both the U.S. and Britain to ensure neither took exclusive control over any Central American canal, lasting until the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty in 1901.
Gadsden Purchase (1853):
Pierce purchased a small tract of land from Mexico for $10 million, providing a southern route for the transcontinental railroad, comprising parts of southern New Mexico and Arizona.
5.4 - Conflict Over Status of Territories
Free Soil Movement:
While abolitionists sought total eradication of slavery, many Northern Democrats and Whigs aimed to prevent slavery's westward expansion, preserving the West as an opportunity for whites.
Established in 1848, the Free Soil Movement opposed slavery in the territories while advocating for free homesteads and internal improvements.
Southern Position:
Some Southerners argued limiting the expansion of slavery violated their constitutional rights.
Others advocated for open expansion or a westward extension of the Missouri Compromise to gain more congressional representation.
Popular Sovereignty:
Proposed by Lewis Cass, suggesting new states should vote to decide on slavery.
Election of 1848:
Featured three parties:
Democrats, led by Senator Cass promoting popular sovereignty.
Whigs, led by General Zachary Taylor, who took a neutral stance on slavery in territories and emerged victorious.
Free Soil, led by former President Martin Van Buren, comprising antislavery Whigs and Democrats.
President Taylor's Support:
Taylor supported California and New Mexico's immediate admission as free states to maintain law and order in newly acquired territories.
5.4 - Compromise to Preserve the Union
Compromise of 1850:
The admission of California ignited threats of secession among Southern “fire-eaters” who convened discussions in 1850.
Henry Clay proposed:
Admission of California as a free state.
Division of the Mexican Cession into Utah and New Mexico with popular sovereignty.
Federal government assuming Texas’s debt while ceding disputed land to new territories.
Ban of slave trade in Washington D.C., yet permitting slavery.
Adoption and enforcement of new Fugitive Slave Laws.
Legislative Debates:
Key figures including Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun delivered pivotal speeches, with Webster supporting compromise for union preservation and Calhoun opposing compromise, advocating for Southern rights.
Impact of Passage:
The Compromise of 1850 provided a temporary respite for the Union, adding to the North’s political power while exacerbating tensions with the adoption of popular sovereignty and fugitive slave laws.
5.5 Sectional Conflict: Regional Differences
Essential Question: How did slavery-related regional differences create tensions leading to the Civil War? What impact did immigration have on American culture between 1844 - 1877?
Context: Numerous issues including nativism, anti-Catholic sentiment, and industrial responses manifested as conflict, primarily regarding the expansion of slavery into new territories.
5.5 - Immigration Controversy
Rise of Immigration: Significant immigration from Ireland and Germany intensified regional opposition:
Irish Immigrants:
Comprising half of all immigrants (2 million); left due to crop failures and famine.
Often competed with African Americans for labor jobs, many settled in urban areas like New York, Boston, and Philadelphia and established vibrant communities preserving their culture, language, and religion (Roman Catholicism).
Became politically active and organized within the Democratic Party, ultimately controlling NYC's Democratic organization by the 1880s.
German Immigrants:
Fled economic hardships and failed revolutions, many possessing skills as artisans and farmers.
Moved to the Old Northwest to establish homesteads, promoting public education and opposing slavery while forming tight-knit communities.
Nativist Opposition:
Nativism: Reaction to immigration where Anglos feared job loss and cultural dilution, leading to tensions especially between Protestants and Cathoics.
Formed secret anti-foreign societies like the Supreme Order of the Star Spangled Banner, later the “Know-Nothing” Party advocating for stringent immigration policies, raising citizenship requirements and limiting political office to native-born citizens.
5.5 - The Expanding Economy
Economic Growth (1840-1857): Territorial expansion paralleled rapid economic growth.
Industrial Technology:
Pre-1840, factory production was primarily in New England textile mills; post-1840, industrialization spread across the Northeast producing various goods (shoes, clothing, firearms, etc.).
Innovations such as the sewing machine (Elias Howe) revolutionized clothing production by shifting it to factories.
Samuel F.B. Morse's telegraph significantly advanced communication.
Railroads:
Railroads replaced canal building as America's most substantial industry, facilitating agricultural promotion and connecting the West with the Northwest.
Panic of 1857:
A financial crisis that resulted in decreased agricultural outputs in the Midwest and increased unemployment in the Northeast, prompting Southern beliefs in the plantation economy's superiority.
5.5 - Agitation Over Slavery
Post-Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, political tensions slightly relaxed; however, issues remained at the forefront, notably the Fugitive Slave Laws and popular abolitionist literature.
Fugitive Slave Laws:
Accepted by Southerners in exchange for the admission of California as a free state, yet detested by Northerners whose rights to trial by jury for accused fugitives were denied, imposing severe penalties on those aiding in escape attempts.
Underground Railroad:
A network of activists aimed at aiding enslaved individuals in their escape to free northern states.
Books on Slavery:
Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Harriet Beecher Stowe): Highlighted slavery’s atrocities, evoking strong Northern opposition while the South perceived it as a Northern prejudice against their lifestyle.
Pro-slavery literature, like Aunt Phillis's Cabin (Mary Eastman) and The Impending Crisis of the South (Hinton R. Helper), attacked slavery from economic perspectives but were often banned in the South.
Southern Reaction:
Proslavery proponents defended the institution using religious and philosophical arguments, including texts like Sociology for the South (George Fitzhugh) asserting slaves fared better than Northern factory workers.
Impact:
Slavery evolving into a moral issue; the South firmly believed the North sought to abolish slavery relentlessly.
5.6 Failure of Compromise
Essential Question: What political causes led to the Civil War?
Context: Many compromises sought to stave off conflict between the North and the South, achieving varied results. Three prevailing issues divided the nation regarding slavery:
Moral implications surrounding slavery.
Constitutional questions pertinent to slavery rights.
Economic disparities between free-labor industrialists and plantation interests.
5.6 - National Parties in Crisis
Both Whigs and Democrats experienced weakening due to regional differences on slavery issues.
Election of 1852:
Whigs nominated Winfield Scott, who ignored the slavery issue to maintain their platform focused on internal improvements, leading to infighting within the party.
Democrats nominated Franklin Pierce, a compromise candidate appealing to both regional factions, winning nearly all electoral states.
The Whig Party continued to decline as slavery tensions intensified.
Kansas-Nebraska Act:
Despite controlling Congress and the presidency, Democrats confronted unavoidable slavery issues.
Proposed by Stephen A. Douglas to facilitate a transcontinental railroad route.
Compromise created two territories - Kansas and Nebraska, granting them popular sovereignty over slavery, inciting Northern outcry and passing in 1854.
5.6 - Extremists and Violence
The Kansas-Nebraska Act effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise that had maintained peace for over 30 years, unleashing regional conflict.
Bleeding Kansas:
Both pro-slavery and anti-slavery groups aimed to control Kansas, which possessed a majority anti-slavery population, resulting in violent confrontations.
Border Ruffians from Missouri established a proslavery legislature in Lecompton, while anti-slavery settlers formed a government in Topeka, leading to violence.
Notable incidents included the attack on free-soil towns by pro-slavery forces and retaliatory strikes by abolitionists like John Brown at Pottawatomie Creek.
Caning of Senator Sumner:
Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner delivered a speech denouncing the Democratic Party for inaction and personally attacked a Southern senator, igniting violence when Preston Brooks assaulted him on the Senate floor.
Birth of the Republican Party:
The disruption over slavery split the Democratic Party into Northern and Southern factions, while remnants of the Whig Party and other anti-slavery groups formed the Republican Party in 1854, demanding the cessation of slavery's westward expansion.
The Republican Party quickly emerged as the second-largest political faction in the country.
Election of 1856:
Democratic candidate James Buchanan won, but Republicans garnered support from 11 of 16 free states, eliciting fears of Republicans winning national elections without Southern votes.
5.6 - Constitutional Issues
Buchanan was criticized for his perceived weaknesses as president amid rising tensions between Democrats' popular sovereignty and Republicans’ anti-expansionist sentiments.
Lecompton Constitution:
Proposed Congress accept a pro-slavery constitution for Kansas, which faced rejection by both Democrats and Republicans, illustrating Buchanan's weaknesses.
Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857):
Enslaved man Dred Scott sought freedom after residing in a free state for two years but was denied by the Supreme Court under Justice Roger Taney, ruling that:
Scott had no standing to sue as the Constitution did not recognize him as a citizen.
Enslaved individuals were classified as property, hence Congress could not restrict the movement of property.
Declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, provoking Northern outrage while facilitating slavery’s western expansion.
Lincoln-Douglas Debates:
Abraham Lincoln debated Stephen Douglas, a proponent of popular sovereignty, during the Illinois Senate race.
Lincoln maintained moral opposition to slavery's extension while holding moderate views on its abolition.
His "House Divided" speech articulated that the government cannot endure as half slave and half free.
The debates heightened Lincoln's profile nationally, positioning him as the Republican nominee for president in 1860.
5.7 Election of 1860 and Secession
Essential Question: What were the effects of Lincoln’s election?
Context: The Republican Party's ascendancy and their ability to win elections without Southern cooperation created anxiety among Southern leaders, exacerbated by Republican goals foreboding higher tariffs and slavery's containment.
5.7 - The Road to Secession
John Brown’s Raid at Harpers Ferry (1859):
His radical abolitionist actions alarmed the South when he attempted to seize a federal arsenal to arm enslaved people.
The raid ended in failure, dividing Northern support.
Breakup of the Democratic Party:
Divided over slavery-related nominations, Northern Democrats backed Stephen Douglas, while Southern Democrats supported unrestricted slavery extension with John C. Breckinridge.
The prospect of a Republican president loomed large for the South, fearing constitutional impacts on their right to hold enslaved individuals affirmed by the Supreme Court.
Republican Nominations:
Led by Lincoln, the Republicans capitalized on the exclusion of slavery in the territories, a protective tariff for industry, and internal improvements for western settlement.
Recognizing a need for moderation, California selected Lincoln, leading the Southern states to threaten secession upon his victory.
A Fourth Political Party:
A coalition of former Whigs, Know-Nothings, and moderate Democrats established the Constitutional Union Party, backing John Bell in promoting constitution enforcement and union preservation.
Election Outcome:
Lincoln won all Northern free states with 59% of electoral votes and 39.8% of the popular vote, confirming to Southerners that the Republican Party could succeed without Southern votes.
5.7 - Secession of the Deep South
Steps Toward Secession:
After the election, although Republicans did not control the Senate or Supreme Court, secessionists urged disunion efforts.
The South Carolina convention voted unanimously for secession, followed by Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas within six weeks.
Formation of the Confederate States of America:
In February 1861, representatives from seven Deep South states convened to establish the Confederacy, mirroring the U.S. Constitution but limiting the government's powers related to tariffs and slavery.
Jefferson Davis was named President, and Alexander Stephens served as Vice President.
Crittenden Compromise:
Before Lincoln's inauguration, attempts by Congress to prevent secession through compromises such as the Crittenden Amendment (ensuring slavery in all territory west of the Missouri Compromise line) were rejected by Lincoln, further rallying Southern resolve.
5.7 - A Nation Divided
In his inaugural address, Lincoln committed to preserving the Union without interfering with slavery as it existed.
Fort Sumter:
Federal forts in secessionist states held strategic importance for the Union; Lincoln opted to supply Fort Sumter instead of attacking.
South Carolina fired upon Union troops, igniting the Civil War, with the fort's capture signaling Southern unity against the North.
Secession in the Upper South:
Lincoln’s resolve to supply Union troops incited further secession from states such as Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas while West Virginia remained loyal to the Union and formed its own state in 1863.
Border States:
States such as Delaware, Maryland, Missouri, and Kentucky opted for Union loyalty while maintaining their institution of slavery.
Lincoln opted not to emancipate enslaved people in these borders for strategic reasons, as their loss would significantly increase the Confederacy's resources.
Importance of Border States:
Their allegiance to the Union prevented a 50% increase in Confederate population and provided a vital strategic buffer.
Northern policies did not liberate enslaved people in these states, seeking to avoid additional Southern resentment and losing critical infrastructure.
5.8 Military Conflict in the Civil War
Essential Question: What factors contributed to the Union's victory in the Civil War?
Context: The Civil War was a result of substantial sectional tensions between the North and the South, marking America’s most costly conflict with a death toll of approximately 750,000.
Union and Confederate Military Differences:
Confederate Advantages:
Home territory advantage for their defensive stance
Long coastline made blockade challenging
High troop morale, motivated by the struggle for independence
Experienced military leadership and European cotton demand
Union Advantages:
Far larger population (22 million versus 5.5 million)
Strong navy to dominate supply lines
Control of economy, encompassing 85% of factories and a significant portion of farmland
Infrastructure supporting wartime needs (banking, production, transportation)
Political Differences Between Regions:
The Confederacy’s minimal central government hindered material procurement needed to sustain the war effort, revealing serious liabilities associated with state rights.
President Jefferson Davis faced resistance from various Confederate states reluctant to centralize control over resources, which contributed to supply shortages.
5.8 - First Years of a Long War: 1861 - 1862
Union Strategy:
General Winfield Scott developed a three-part plan for victory called the Anaconda Plan, aiming to:
Use a naval blockade against Southern ports,
Capture the Mississippi River, effectively bisecting the Confederacy, and
Train and deploy an army of 500,000 soldiers to capture Richmond.
Early Defeats for the Union:
The initial stage of the war featured several setbacks for the Union, including significant losses in Virginia.
The First Battle of Bull Run marked a considerable early defeat, dispelling illusions of a swift war.
Peninsula Campaign (1862): General McClellan's cautious approach resulted in a prolonged campaign during which Confederate General Robert E. Lee's tactics forced a retreat.
The Second Battle of Bull Run continued the trend of Union losses, ultimately resulting in mounting pressure on Lincoln to find effective military leadership.
Notable Union Victories:
Antietam: The Union halted Lee’s advance into the North, marking the bloodiest single day of the conflict. The victory helped prevent European recognition of the Confederacy.
Monitor vs. Merrimac: The introduction of ironclad ships represented a paradigm shift in naval warfare, ensuring the Union could maintain its blockade.
Grant in the West: Ulysses S. Grant managed to open the Mississippi River to Union forces after engaging in significant battles, including Shiloh, which underscored the war's brutal nature and confirmed the lengthy conflict's demands.
5.8 - Foreign Affairs and Diplomacy
Trent Affair (1861): A significant incident aboard the British ship Trent nearly brought Great Britain into the war on the side of the Confederacy.
The U.S. Navy intercepted the ship, capturing Confederate diplomats Mason and Slidell, leading to diplomatic tensions with Britain.
Lincoln ultimately chose to release them to avoid war.
Confederate Raiders: Despite the lack of official British recognition of the Confederacy, Britain sold the South several critical warships, causing distress to U.S. vessels.
Following the war, the U.S. received $15.5 million in damages from Britain.
Failure of Cotton Diplomacy:
The Confederacy relied heavily on cotton as leverage but failed to gain significant British support as Britain found alternative cotton sources elsewhere.
The Emancipation Proclamation shifted the focus of the war to a moral battle against slavery, further complicating potential British support for the South due to public sentiments.
5.8 - The Union Triumphs: 1863 - 1865
Turning Points in 1863:
Vicksburg: The siege resulted in Union control of the Mississippi River, effectively cutting off the Confederacy’s supply routes.
Gettysburg: Marked the bloodiest battle with 50,000 casualties, resulting in a significant retreat for the Confederate Army and altering the war's momentum.
Despite Confederate military victories, the Union's industrial resources began turning the tide.
Grant in Command:
Grant’s approach was characterized by a war of attrition, aiming to wear down Southern resources while continuing to apply pressure against supply lines.
Grant’s strategy led to notable campaigns, including Sherman’s March, which inflicted massive destruction along the Southern states.
5.8 - The End of the War
Confederate Surrender:
The combination of Union advantages, Sherman’s military campaigns, and the growing hardships faced by the Confederate population precipitated the fall of Richmond in April 1865.
The official surrender of Lee’s forces at Appomattox Courthouse marked the end of the Civil War, emphasizing the enduring conflict between sectional interests.
5.9 Government Policies During the Civil War
Essential Question: How did Lincoln’s leadership during the Civil War influence American ideals?
Context: Abraham Lincoln's actions as Commander-in-Chief during the war often faced scrutiny due to his unilateral approach.
5.9 - The End of Slavery
Lincoln’s hesitancy to end slavery stemmed from concerns about border states' support, constitutional questions regarding government authority, racial prejudices within the North, and fears of backfire in the event of election loss.
Confiscation Acts: Alongside wartime strategies, the Union enacted Confiscation Acts to seize enemy property, including enslaved individuals, used to further the Confederate war effort.
Emancipation Proclamation: Lincoln delayed its announcement until a Union victory to maintain credibility.
It freed enslaved people in rebelling states (approximately 1%) while preserving slavery in border states, thereby transforming the war's moral dimension.
African Americans in the War: Over 200,000 freed African Americans joined the Union Army and Navy, notably evidenced by regiments like the Massachusetts 54th.
5.9 - Political Change
During the war, the electoral process remained largely unchanged, though various factions emerged:
Radical Republicans called for immediate emancipation of enslaved people.
Free Soil Republicans aimed for economic opportunities for white settlers.
Copperheads, or peace Democrats, opposed the war and sought peace negotiations.
The Draft: Implemented universal conscription for males aged 20 to 45, allowing exemptions for a $300 fee or a substitute.
Unease in labor and immigrant communities led to significant draft riots, notably the 1863 NYC riots targeting communities of color.
Civil Liberties and Habeas Corpus: Lincoln prioritized wartime actions over civil liberties, suspending habeas corpus for suspected Confederate sympathizers.
Election of 1864: Lincoln faced a divided party, but was re-elected alongside Andrew Johnson (War Democrat), maintaining Republican prowess in Congress.
The electoral victory affirmed wartime policies and Republican influence.
5.9 - Economic Change
The Civil War's immense cost demanded significant economic adjustments and governance mechanisms.
Financing the War: The Union raised $2.6 billion through bonds, tariffs, income taxes, and printing greenbacks, leading to substantial inflation.
Economic Modernization: The war precipitated rapid industrial growth in the North and the emergence of a millionaire class profiting from wartime contracts.
Various legislative measures promoted economic expansion, including the Morrill Tariff Act and Homestead Act.
Post-War Reflections: The war profoundly reshaped American society, transitioning it into a modern economic landscape while highlighting the persistent struggles for civil rights and societal equality.
5.10 Reconstruction
Essential Question: What effects did government policies during Reconstruction have on American society from 1865 - 1877?
Context: The Civil War's close left America grappling with reintegration challenges, the fate of four million morphed freed black Americans, and the status of former Confederate states within the Union.
Central inquiries included the treatment of secessionists and the scope of federal authority in shaping societal recovery.
5.10 - Presidential Reconstruction
Lincoln’s Plan: Lincoln viewed the South as a disloyal minority. His Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction emphasized:
Full pardons for Confederates swearing allegiance and accepting emancipation.
Reconstruction commenced when 10% of the population pledged loyalty (10% plan).
Wade-Davis Bill (1864): Responded to Lincoln's softer stance; stipulated:
50% of voters must take an oath before constituting a government.
Only non-Confederates could vote on the new constitution.
Freedmen’s Bureau: Aimed to assist both black and white Americans made destitute by war.
Provided education, housing, food, and initially resettlement assistance, although limitations soon emerged under Johnson’s tenure.
5.10 - Congressional Reconstruction
Radical Republicans: The Republican Party was increasingly polarized between moderates seeking economic opportunities versus radicals advocating civil rights for black citizens.
Following emancipation, the South had increased congressional representation, raising fears among many Republicans about Southern resurgence.
Thirteenth Amendment (1865): Established freedom for 4 million formerly enslaved individuals, ensuring constitutional protections.
Civil Rights Act of 1866: Nullified Johnson’s vetoes, asserting all African Americans as U.S. citizens and shielding them from Southern Black Codes.
Fourteenth Amendment (1866): Affirmed citizenship for all born in the U.S. while ensuring equal protection under the law and penalizing states that restricted voting rights.
Election of 1866: Johnson campaigned against Congress, focusing on racial fears of Southern voters; Republicans capitalized on the war’s legacy to secure a commanding legislative majority.
Reconstruction Acts of 1867: Despite Johnson's vetoes, Congress enforced military governance over the South, splitting it into five districts and creating more stringent readmission requirements for former Confederate states.
5.10 - Johnson’s Impeachment and the Election of 1868
Johnson’s Impeachment: Triggered by his dismissal of Edwin Stanton against the Tenure of Office Act, the House impeached him, narrowly avoiding a Senate conviction.
Election of 1868: Republicans nominated Ulysses S. Grant, securing a slim victory bolstered by a substantial turnout of Black voters, emphasizing the significance of African American political inclusion.
Fifteenth Amendment (1870): Constitutionally prohibited states from denying voting rights based on race, although many states subsequently devised restrictive measures to suppress black voter turnout.
Civil Rights Act of 1875: The last significant civil rights reform during Reconstruction, mandating equal public accommodations and jury participation for African Americans.
5.10 - Reconstruction in the South
Governments of the South: Reconstruction led to Republican control sustained through military presence, eventually transitioning state governance from radical forces to moderate elements as requirements were met.
Southern legislatures transitioned power from whites to some educated and moderate African Americans.
African Americans Adjusting to Freedom: Many formed communities for educational and familial reunions and established independent churches, while some migrated to northern cities seeking better opportunities.
5.10 - The North During Reconstruction
Political Corruption: Under President Grant, political idealism was overshadowed by greed, resulting in widespread corruption among political and business elites, tarnishing the Republican image.
Diverted Attention: The Panic of 1873 refocused Northern concern as economic distress grew, limiting attention to Southern instability and African American needs.
Changing Roles for Women: Women took on critical roles during the war, advocating for suffrage while expressing frustration over their exclusion in Reconstruction amendments.
5.11 Failure of Reconstruction
Essential Question: In what ways did Reconstruction influence regional and national identities concerning what it means to be American?
Context: The extent of Reconstruction's success remains contested, showing both advancements and profound failures.
5.11 - Evaluating the Republican Record
Accomplishments:
Significant liberalization of state constitutions, universal male suffrage, and property rights for women.
Initiated public education and promoted various public improvements.
Set up significant social services like hospitals and asylums.
Failures: Occasional corruption and bribery marred their effectiveness.
5.11 - End of Reconstruction
Rise of White Supremacy: In the wake of Republican governance, groups like the Ku Klux Klan formed to intimidate African Americans and undermine their suffrage.
The Klan's violence led to federal intervention through Force Acts designed to curb their power.
Southern Governments: By 1870, all ex-Confederate states were re-admitted without explicitly ensuring voting rights for Black Americans.
Redeemers: Conservative Southern Democrats regained control, focusing on white supremacy, reduced spending, and the re-establishment of social hierarchies.
Limitations from Johnson: The previous administration permitted Southern legislatures to enact Black Codes that curtailed the rights of freedmen.
Sharecropping System: Many African Americans found themselves entrapped in exploitative arrangements, fundamentally adapting the old plantation economy dynamics.
5.11 - End of Reconstruction (Contd.)
Election of 1876: Saw the Democrats regain power, culminating in the fierce contest between Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel J. Tilden.
A highly disputed election led to a resolution through the Compromise of 1877, granting Hayes presidency in exchange for withdrawal of federal troops from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction.
Long-Term Consequences: While efforts for African American civil rights were foundational, the eventual abandonment of Reconstruction laid groundwork for the Southern systemic racism and disenfranchisement that persists through the Jim Crow era and beyond.