AP Government and Politics: 2024 Study Session Review

Exam Preparation

  • Preparing for the exam is like training for a marathon; consistent effort is more effective than cramming.
  • Exam date: May 6th at 8 am.

Exam Format

  • 55 multiple-choice questions (50% of grade, 1 hour & 20 minutes).
  • 4 free response questions (50% of grade, 1 hour & 40 minutes).

Multiple-Choice Topics

  • Government Institutions (35-40%): Congress, presidency, courts, bureaucracy.
  • Political Behavior of Individuals (10-20%): Political culture, public opinion, voting.
  • Political Behavior of Groups (10-20%): Political parties, elections, interest groups, PACs, mass media.
  • Constitutional Foundations (5-15%): Federalism, checks & balances, separation of powers, theories of democracy.
  • Civil Liberties and Civil Rights (5-15%).

Required Supreme Court Cases

  • Marbury v. Madison (1803).
  • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819).
  • Schenck v. US (1919).
  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954).
  • Baker v. Carr.
  • Engel v. Vitale.
  • Gideon v. Wainright.
  • Tinker v. Des Moines.
  • NY Times Co. v. US.
  • Wisconsin v. Yoder.
  • Shaw v. Reno.
  • US v. Lopez.
  • McDonald v. Chicago.
  • Citizens United v. FEC.

Required Documents

  • The Declaration of Independence (1776).
  • The Articles of Confederation (1781).
  • The Constitution of the U.S. (1789).
  • Federalist #10.
  • Brutus #1.
  • Federalist #51.
  • Federalist #70.
  • Federalist #78.
  • Letter from a Birmingham Jail.

Unit 1: Foundations of American Democracy

  • The U.S. Constitution addresses visions for governmental authority, compromises during the Constitutional Convention and ratification debates, balance between federal and state power, and liberty and social order.
  • Balance between governmental power and individual rights has been a hallmark of American political development.

Democratic Ideals

  • Core democratic ideals/values = Liberty, Equality, Limited Gov’t, Natural Rights, Republicanism, Social Contract
  • Declaration of Independence: States all men are equal and have rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Government protects these rights with the consent of the governed. People can revolt if the government withholds these rights (social contract).
  • Constitution: Promotes Liberty with the Bill of Rights.
  • Popular Sovereignty: Power of the people; government governs only with permission of the people it governs.
  • Republicanism: The people directly elect the House of Representatives.
  • Limited Government: Government may only do what it has been given power to do (10th Amendment and enumerated powers of the federal government).

Foundations of American Government

  • Limited government, natural rights, popular sovereignty, republicanism, and social contract.
  • The Declaration of Independence provides a foundation for popular sovereignty.
  • The U.S. Constitution provides the blueprint for political democracy in the U.S.

Definitions

  • Natural rights: Inalienable rights that can never be taken or given away (e.g., "life, liberty, and property").
  • Popular sovereignty: The ultimate source of political power is the people, who delegate power to the government through a social contract.
  • Republicanism: A form of government in which power is held by the people, either directly or through elected representatives.
  • Social contract: Agreement between the government and the people, where people give up some rights for protection of freedoms and safety.

Social Contract

  • A fundamental principle of American democracy.
  • Debates over privacy versus safety reflect the ongoing negotiation of the terms of this agreement.

Representative Democracy

  • Representative democracies can take several forms.
  • Participatory democracy.
  • Pluralist democracy.
  • Elite democracy.

Madisonian Principles

  • Federalism
  • Popular Sovereignty
  • Checks and Balances
  • Separation of Powers
  • Limited Government

Federalist and Anti-Federalist Views

  • The Constitution emerged from the debate about weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation as a blueprint for limited government.
  • Federalist and Anti-Federalist views on central government and democracy are reflected in U.S. foundational documents.

Federalist No. 10

  • Madison's arguments focused on controlling the “mischiefs of faction” by:
    • Delegating authority to elected representatives.
    • Dispersing power between the states and national government.
  • Faction: a group of individuals with a shared political interest.
  • The source of factions: human nature and unequal distribution of property.
  • How factions are controlled: a large republic with dispersed power.

Anti-Federalist Writings

  • Brutus No. 1 adhered to popular democratic theory:
    • Emphasized benefits of a small decentralized republic.
    • Warned of dangers to personal liberty from a large, centralized government.
  • Anti-Federalists were reluctant to sign the new Constitution because:
    • The Constitution lacked sufficient protections for individual rights.
    • They feared that a powerful central government would become tyrannical.

Articles of Confederation

  • Problems in the Articles of Confederation were corrected in the Constitution by:
    • Granting the federal government greater power formerly reserved to the states.

Constitutional Compromises

  • Great (Connecticut) Compromise
  • Electoral College
  • Three-Fifths Compromise
  • Compromise on the importation of slaves

Constitutional Basis of Federalism

  • Federalism is defined in the enumerated, concurrent, and reserved powers of the national and state governments.

Interstate Relations

  • Obligations that each state has to every other state under the Constitution:
    • Full Faith and Credit Clause
    • Privileges and Immunities Clause
    • Extradition

Commerce and Elastic Clauses

  • Commerce Clause and the Elastic Clause have played key roles in the expansion of Federal power.

Powers

  • Enumerated powers
  • Implied powers.
  • Inherent powers
  • Reserved powers

Federalist No. 51

  • Explains the ideas of separation of powers and checks and balances for the U.S. political system.

Societal Needs

  • Societal needs affect the constitutional allocation of power between the national and state governments.

Amendments

  • 10th Amendment v. 14th Amendment

Distribution of Power

  • The distribution of power changes, as reflected by grants, incentives, and aid programs, including:
    • Federal revenue sharing
    • Mandates
    • Categorical grants: Increased federal power because the states must comply with the regulations.
    • Block grants

Fiscal Federalism

  • Grants-in-aid: Federal money provided to states and localities for specific purposes.
  • Categorical Grants: Federal grants for specific purposes with strict guidelines Example: Head Start Program.
  • Block Grants: Federal grants given to states or communities to support broad programs Example: Community Development.
  • Mandates: Requirements imposed on state and local governments to comply with federal rules.

Balance of Power

  • The appropriate balance of power between national and state governments has been interpreted differently over time:
    • Dual Federalism
    • Cooperative Federalism

Amendments and Clauses

  • The interpretation of the 10th and 14th Amendments, the commerce clause, the necessary and proper clause, and other enumerated and implied powers is at the heart of the debate over the balance of power between the national and state governments.

Supreme Court Cases

  • The balance of power has changed over time based on U.S. Supreme Court interpretation of cases:
    • McCulloch v. Maryland
    • United States v. Lopez

Federalism Legislation

  • Unfunded Mandates Reform Act
  • Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
  • Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)
  • National Voter Registration Act (Motor Voter Act)
  • Clean Air Act
  • Americans with Disabilities Act
  • Brady Bill
  • No Child Left Behind Act

Unit 2: Interactions Among Branches of Government

  • Institutional actors must compete and cooperate to govern because power is widely distributed and checks prevent one branch from usurping powers from the others.
  • The republican ideal is manifested in the structure and operation of the legislative branch.

Congress

  • The Senate represents states equally, while the House represents the population.
  • Different chamber sizes and constituencies influence formality of debate.
Senate
  • Smaller size, statewide constituency.
  • More formal debate rules.
House of Representatives
  • Larger size, district-based constituency.
  • Less formal debate rules.

Congressional Powers

  • The enumerated and implied powers in the Constitution allow the creation of public policy by Congress, which includes:
    • Passing a federal budget, raising revenue, and coining money
    • Declaring war and maintaining the armed forces
    • Enacting legislation that addresses a wide range of economic, environmental, and social issues based on the Necessary and Proper Clause

Structure and Functions of Congress

  • The structure, powers, and functions of both houses of Congress affect the policy-making process.
  • Both chambers rely on committees to conduct hearings and debate bills under consideration.
  • Different constitutional responsibilities of the House and Senate affect the policy-making process.

Congressional Committees

  • Types of congressional committees:
    • Standing committees: Permanent committees with specific areas of responsibility
    • Select committees: Temporary committees created for a specific purpose.
    • Joint committees: Committees with members from both the House and Senate.
    • Conference committees: Temporary committees created to resolve differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.

Chamber-Specific Procedures

  • Chamber-specific procedures, rules, and roles impact policy making.
  • Number of chamber and debate rules set the bar high for building majority support.
  • Roles of Speaker of the House, party leadership, and committee leadership in both chambers.
    • Filibuster: A tactic used in the Senate to delay or block a vote on a bill.
    • Cloture: A procedure used in the Senate to limit debate on a bill and end a filibuster.
    • Role of Rules Committee, Committee of the Whole, and discharge petitions in the House
  • Treaty ratification and confirmation role of the U.S. Senate
  • Congress must generate a budget that addresses both discretionary and mandatory spending.
  • Entitlement costs will decrease unless tax revenues increase or the budget deficit increases.
Spending
  • Discretionary spending: Government spending that is not required by law Example: defense, education.
  • Mandatory spending: Government spending that is required by law Example: Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid.

Pork Barrel Legislation and Logrolling

  • Pork barrel legislation: Legislation that provides benefits to a specific district or region.
  • Logrolling: The practice of exchanging favors or support for each other’s proposals.

Congressional Behavior

  • Congressional behavior is influenced by election processes, partisanship, and divided government.
  • Ideological divisions within Congress
  • Gerrymandering: The drawing of district boundaries to favor one party or group over another.
  • Redistricting: The redrawing of district boundaries to reflect changes in population.
  • Reapportionment: The reallocation of seats in the House of Representatives to reflect changes in population.
  • Elections that have led to a “divided government."
  • Congressional refusal to confirm appointments of “lame duck” presidents of the opposite party
  • Different role conceptions as related to constituent accountability in each chamber:
    • Trustee model: Representatives vote based on their own judgment and conscience.
    • Delegate model: Representatives vote based on the wishes of their constituents.

Court Cases

  • These issue are partially addressed by such Court decisions:
    • Baker v. Carr
    • Shaw v. Reno

The Presidency

  • The presidency has been enhanced beyond its expressed constitutional powers.
  • Presidents use powers and functions of the office to accomplish a policy agenda.
Powers of the President
  • Formal Powers: Powers explicitly granted to the president in the Constitution Example: Veto power, Commander-in-chief.
  • Informal Powers : Powers not explicitly stated in the Constitution
    Example: Executive orders, Bully pulpit.
  • The president’s agenda can create tension and frequent confrontations with Congress.
  • The potential for conflict with the Senate depends upon executive appointments:
    • Cabinet
    • Ambassadors
    • White House Staff
  • Senate confirmation is an important check on appointment powers, but the president’s longest-lasting influence lies in life-tenured judicial appointments.
Federalist No. 70
  • Summary of Federalist No. 70.
  • Term-of-office and constitutional-power restrictions, including the passage of the 22nd Amendment, demonstrate changing presidential roles.
22nd Amendment
  • Limits the president to two terms in office.
  • The communication impact of the presidency can be demonstrated through factors such as:
    • Modern technology, social media, and rapid response to political issue
    • Nationally broadcast State of the Union messages and the president’s bully pulpit used as tools for agenda setting

The Federal Bureaucracy

  • The federal bureaucracy is a powerful institution implementing federal policies with sometimes questionable accountability.
  • Tasks performed by departments, agencies, commissions, and government corporations.
  • The bureaucracy interacts with the president and Congress by:
    • Writing and enforcing regulations
    • Issuing fines
    • Testifying before Congress
    • Iron triangles: A close relationship between a bureaucratic agency, a congressional committee, and an interest group.
  • Political patronage, civil service, and merit system reforms impact the effectiveness of the bureaucracy by promoting professionalism, specialization, and neutrality.
Reforms
  • Civil service: A system of hiring and promoting government employees based on merit.
  • Merit: Selecting the best-qualified individuals, with no consideration of political views or party affiliation Example: civil service exams.
  • Pendleton Act: Established a merit system for hiring federal employees.
  • The federal bureaucracy uses delegated discretionary authority for rule making and implementation.
Authority
  • Discretionary and rule-making authority to implement policy are given to bureaucratic agencies such as:
    • Department of Homeland Security
    • Department of Transportation
    • Department of Veterans Affairs
    • Department of Education
    • Environmental Protection Agency
    • Federal Elections Commission (FEC)
    • Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
Agencies
  • Independent Executive Agency:
    Define: Agencies that exist outside of the federal executive departments (those run by a Cabinet Secretary).
    Example: NASA
  • Independent Regulatory Commission:
    Define: Federal agencies created by an act of Congress that are independent of the executive departments.
    Example: FCC (Federal Communications Commission)
  • Government Corporation:
    Define: A company that is owned by the government and operates with the same independence of a private business.
    Example: USPS (United States Postal Service)
  • Congress uses its oversight power in its relationship with the executive branch.
  • Oversight and methods used by Congress to ensure that legislation is implemented as intended:
    • Committee hearings
    • Power of the purse
  • “Congressional oversight” serves as a check of executive authorization and appropriation.
  • The president ensures that executive branch agencies and departments carry out their responsibilities in concert with the goals of the administration.
  • Governmental branches can hold the bureaucracy accountable given the competing interests of Congress, the president, and the federal courts.

Judicial Branch

  • The design of the judicial branch protects the court’s independence as a branch of government, and the emergence and use of judicial review remains a powerful judicial practice.
  • Judicial review checks the power of other institutions and state governments.
  • The Supreme Court is insulated from public opinion.
  • The foundation for powers of the judicial branch and how its independence checks the power of other institutions and state governments are set forth in:
    • Article III of the Constitution
    • Federalist No. 78
    • Marbury v. Madison (1803)
  • The exercise of judicial review in conjunction with life tenure can lead to controversy about the legitimacy of the Supreme Court’s power.
Decisions
  • Precedents and stare decisis play an important role in judicial decision making.
  • Stare Decisis: The legal principle of determining points in litigation according to precedent
  • Precedent: A legal case or issue that establishes a principle or rule that a court may need to follow when deciding subsequent cases with similar issues or facts
  • Ideological changes in the composition of the Supreme Court due to presidential appointments have led to the Court’s establishing new or rejecting existing precedents.
  • Controversial or unpopular court decisions can lead to challenges of the court’s legitimacy and power which Congress and the president.
  • The President and Congress can change unpopular decisions through:
    • Future appointments
    • Legislation changing the Court’s jurisdiction
    • Refusing to implement decisions
    • Constitutional Amendment
  • Political discussion about the Supreme Court’s power is illustrated by the ongoing debate over judicial activism versus judicial restraint.
Activism vs. Restraint
  • Judicial Activism: Philosophy that the Supreme Court should play an active role in shaping national policies by addressing social and political issues
  • Judicial Restraint: Philosophy that the Supreme Court should avoid taking the initiative on social and political questions
  • Other branches in the government can limit the Supreme Court’s power.
  • Functions of amicus curiae briefs: To provide information and arguments to the court from a neutral perspective.
Opinions
  • Majority opinion
  • Dissenting opinion
  • Concurring opinion
Definitions
  • Writ of Certiorari: An order by a higher court directing a lower court to send up a case for review.
  • Rule of Four: A Supreme Court of the United States practice that permits four of the nine justices to grant a writ of certiorari
Court System
COURTNUMBER OF COURTSNUMBER OF JUDGESJURISDICTIONPOLICY IMPLICATIONS
District Court
Courts of Appeal
Supreme Court

Unit 3: Civil Liberties and Civil Rights

  • Through the U.S. constitution, but primarily through the Bill of Rights and the Fourteenth amendment, citizens and groups have attempted to restrict national and state governments from unduly infringing upon individual rights essential to ordered liberty and from denying equal protection under the law.
  • Legal protections have been used to block reforms and restrict freedoms of others in the name of social order.
  • Provisions of the U.S. Constitution’s Bill of Rights are continually being interpreted to balance the power of government and the civil liberties of individuals.
  • The U.S. Constitution protects individual liberties and rights.
  • The U.S. Constitution includes a Bill of Rights specifically designed to protect individual liberties and rights.
  • Rights protected in the Bill of Rights:
Amendments
  • 1st Amendment
  • 2nd Amendment
  • 4th Amendment
  • 5th Amendment
  • 6th Amendment
  • 8th Amendment
  • 9th Amendment
  • 10th Amendment

First and Second Amendments

  • The Supreme Court’s interpretation of the First and Second Amendments reflects a commitment to individual liberty.
  • The interpretation and application of the First Amendment’s establishment and free exercise clauses reflect an ongoing debate over balancing majoritarian religious practice and free exercise, as represented by cases like:
    • Engel v. Vitale
    • Wisconsin v. Yoder
  • Symbolic speech is protected by the First Amendment, as demonstrated by Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District.
  • Efforts to balance social order and individual freedom are reflected in interpretations of the First Amendment that limit speech, including:
    • Time, place, and manner regulations
    • Miller Test
    • Schenck v. US- Clear and Present Danger Test
  • In New York Times Co. v. United States (1971), the Supreme Court bolstered the freedom of the press, establishing a “heavy presumption against prior restraint” even in cases involving national security.
    • Prior restraint: Government censorship of information before it is published or broadcast.
  • The Supreme Court has attempted to balance claims of individual freedom with laws and enforcement procedures that promote public order and safety.
    • Mapp v. Ohio- Exclusionary Rule
    • 4th Amendment- Protection against warrantless searches & collection of meta data
    • Patriot Act
    • Freedom Acts:
    • Gideon v. Wainright
  • Court decisions defining cruel and unusual punishment involve interpretation of the Eighth Amendment and its application to state death penalty statutes:
    • Furman v. Georgia
    • Atkins v. Virginia
    • Roper v. Simmons

Selective Incorporation

  • Protections of the Bill of Rights have been selectively incorporated by way of the Fourteenth Amendment’s “due process” clause to prevent state infringement of basic liberties.
  • The doctrine of selective incorporation has imposed limitations on state regulation civil rights and liberties as represented by:
    • Barron v. Baltimore
    • Gitlow v. NY
    • McDonald v. Chicago
  • States are limited by the due process clause from infringing upon individual rights.
Amendments (5th, 6th)
  • 5th Amendment
  • 6th Amendment
  • Miranda Rule

Rights to privacy

  • The Court has on occasion ruled in favor of states’ power to restrict individual liberty, as for example, which speech can be shown to increase the danger to public safety.
  • While a right to privacy is not explicitly named in the Constitution, the court has interpreted the due process clause to protect the right of privacy from infringement.
  • The interpretation of the due process clause has been the subject of controversy.
  • Due Process
  • Roe v. Wade

Equal Protection Clause

  • The 14th Amendment’s “equal protection clause” as well as other constitutional provisions have often been used to support the advancement of equality.

Social Movements

  • Constitutional provisions have supported and motivated social movements:
    • Civil Rights Movement (Letter from a Birmingham Jail)
    • Women’s Rights Movement
    • LGBT Rights Movement
  • Civil rights protect individuals from discrimination based on characteristics such as race, national origin, religion, and sex; these rights are guaranteed to all citizens under the due process and equal protection clauses of the U.S. Constitution, as well as acts of Congress.
    Scrutiny
  • Rational Basis
  • Intermediate Scrutiny
  • Strict Scrutiny
  • Public policy promoting civil rights is influenced by citizen-state interactions and constitutional interpretation over time.

Government Response to Social Movements

  • The government can respond to social movements through court rulings and/or policies:
    • Brown v. Board of Education
    • The Civil Rights Act of 1964
    • Title IX of the Civil Rights Act Amendments (1972)
    • The Voting Rights Act of 1965
  • The Court has at times allowed the restriction of the civil rights of minority groups and at other times has protected those rights.

Affirmative Action

  • The debate on affirmative action includes justices who insist that the Constitution is colorblind and those who maintain that it forbids only racial classifications designed to harm minorities, not help them.
    • Bakke v. California

Unit 4: American Political Ideologies and Beliefs

  • American political beliefs are shaped by founding ideals, core values, linkage institutions, political parties, interest groups and the media.
  • The relationship between core beliefs of U.S. citizens and attitudes about the role of government.
  • Cultural factors influence political attitudes and socialization.
  • Public opinion is measured through scientific polling, and the results of public opinion polls influence public policies and institutions.

Elements of a Scientific Poll

  • Public opinion data that can impact elections and policy debates is affected by such scientific polling types and methods as:
    • Opinion polls
    • Tracking polls
    • Entrance and exit polls
  • Polls repeatedly report that a majority of Americans disapprove of the job Congress is doing.
  • The quality and credibility of claims based on public opinion data.
  • The relationship between scientific polling and elections and how policy debates are affected by the:
    • Importance of public opinion as a source of political influence in a given election or policy debate
    • Reliability and veracity of public opinion data
  • Widely held political ideologies shape policy debates and choices in American policies.

Ideologies of the Two Major Parties

  • Democratic Party
    • Economic
    • Social
  • Republican party
    • Economic
    • Social
  • America’s political culture supports economic opportunity, it does NOT support economic equality
  • U.S. political culture influences the formation, goals, and implementation of public policy over time.

Unit 5: Political Participation

  • Governing is achieved directly through citizen participation and indirectly through institutions (e.g., political parties, interest groups, and mass media) that inform, organize, and mobilize support to influence government and politics, resulting in many venues for citizen influence on policy making.
  • Factors associated with political ideology, efficacy, structural barriers, and demographics influence the nature and degree of political participation.
  • Voting rights protections in the Constitution and in legislation and this increased voter participation.
Amendments (15th, 17th, 19th, 24th, 26th)
  • 15th Amendment
  • 17th Amendment
  • 19th Amendment
  • 24th Amendment
  • 26th Amendment
  • Structural barriers, political efficacy, and demographics predict differences in voter turnout in the U.S., and the following can influence voter turnout among democracies worldwide:
    • Political efficacy: The belief that one’s political participation really matters - that one’s vote can actually make a difference
    • Government policies, voter ID laws
  • National versus state-controlled elections
  • Voter registration laws and procedures
  • Voting incentives or penalties or fines
  • Election type (mid-term or presidential)
  • Demographic characteristics and political efficacy or engagement are used to predict the likelihood of whether an individual will vote.
Factors influencing voter choice
  • Party identification and ideological orientation
  • Candidate characteristics
  • Contemporary political issues
  • Religious beliefs or affiliation, gender, race and ethnicity, and other demographic characteristics
  • Political parties, interest groups, and social movements provide opportunities for participation and influence how people relate to government and policy-makers.
  • Linkage institutions are channels that allow individuals to communicate their preferences to policy-makers.

Four Linkage Institutions

  • Parties: Electioneering, fundraising.
  • Interest group: Lobbying, influencing policy.
  • Elections: Voting, participating in campaigns.
  • Media: Reporting, influencing public opinion.

Political Parties

  • The function and impact of political parties on the electorate and government:
    • Mobilization and education of voters
    • Party platforms
    • Candidate recruitment
    • Campaign management, including fundraising and media strategy
  • Parties have adapted to candidate-centered campaigns, and their role in nominating candidates has been weakened.
  • The structure of parties has been influenced by:
    • Regional realignments (North, South, East, West)
    • Campaign finance law
    • Changes in communication and data-management technology
    • Citizens United v. FEC (2010)
  • Structural barriers impact third-party and independent-candidate success.
  • In comparison to proportional systems, winner-take-all voting districts serve as a structural barrier to third-party and independent candidate success.
  • Role Interest groups play in policy making.
  • The role of an iron triangle in policy making.

Iron Triangle

  • Interest groups exert influence through long-standing relationships with bureaucratic agencies, Congressional committees, and other interest groups; such relationships are described as “iron triangles” and issue networks and they help interest groups exert influence across political party coalitions.
  • Variation in types and resources of interest groups affects their ability to influence elections and policy making.
  • Interest group influence may be impacted by:
    • Inequality of resources
    • Unequal access to decision makers
    • “Free rider” problem
  • Various political actors influence public policy outcomes.
  • Single-issue groups, ideological/social movements, and protest movements form with the goal of impacting society and policy making.
  • Federal policies on campaigning and electoral rules are contested by both sides of the political spectrum.
Presidential election outcome factors
  • The process and outcomes in U.S. presidential elections are impacted by:
    • Incumbency advantage phenomenon
    • Open primaries
    • Closed primaries
    • Caucuses
    • Party conventions
    • General (presidential) elections
    • The Electoral College

Electoral College Debate

  • The extent to which the Electoral College facilitates or impedes democracy.
  • Monetary policy refers to the money supply and interest rates. Fiscal policy refers to taxing and spending policies. Both the executive and legislative branches share responsibility for fiscal policies.
  • The winner-take-all allocation of votes per state (except Maine and Nebraska) under the setup of the Electoral College compared with the national popular vote for president raises questions about whether the Electoral College facilitates or impedes democracy.
  • Campaign organizations and strategies affect the election process.
  • Federal legislation and case law pertaining to campaign finance demonstrate the ongoing debate over the role of money in political and free speech, as set forth in:
    • Buckley v. Valeo (1974)
    • Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (McCain Feingold Act)
    • Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)
  • Debates have increased over free speech and competitive and fair elections related to money and campaign funding (including contributions from individuals, PACs and political parties).
  • Various forms of media provide citizens with political information and influence the ways in which they participate politically.

Media

  • Media’s role as a linkage institution.
  • The media’s use of polling results to convey popular levels of trust and confidence in government can impact elections by turning such events into “horse races” based more on popularity and factors other than qualifications and platforms of candidates.
  • Increasingly diverse choices of media and communication outlets influence political institutions and behavior.
Top 10 Acts of Congress
  1. Civil Rights Act of 1964
  2. The Voting Rights Act of 1965
  3. The Clean Air Act (1970)
  4. The War Powers Resolution (1973)
  5. The Budget & Impoundment Control Act of 1974
  6. The Federal Election Campaign Act (1974)
  7. Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)
  8. Welfare Reform Act (1976)
  9. No Child Left Behind Act (2001)
  10. USA Patriot Act (2001)
This Versus That
  1. Nomination vs. General Election
  2. Primary vs. Caucus
  3. Closed Primary vs. Open Primary
  4. Liberal vs. Conservative
  5. Democrat vs. Republican
  6. Major Party vs. Third Party (not the same as Independent)
  7. Realignment vs. Dealignment
  8. Reapportionment vs. Redistricting
  9. Political Parties vs. Interest Groups
  10. Judicial Restraint vs. Judicial Activism
  11. Original Intent vs. “Living” Constitution
  12. District Courts vs. Supreme Court
  13. Appellate Jurisdiction vs. Original Jurisdiction
  14. National Government vs. States’ Rights
  15. Dual Federalism vs. Cooperative Federalism
  16. Block Grants vs. Categorical Grants
  17. Full Faith & Credit vs. Privileges & Immunities
  18. Writ of Certiorari vs. Writ of Habeas Corpus
  19. Civil Liberties vs. Civil Rights
  20. Equal Protection Clause vs. Due Process Clause
  21. Establishment Clause vs. Free Exercise Clause
  22. Separation of Powers vs. Checks and Balances
  23. Nomination vs. Confirmation
  24. Impeachment vs. Conviction (Removal)
  25. Formal Amendment vs. Informal Amendment
  26. Proposing an Amendment vs. Ratification of an Amendment
  27. Necessary & Proper Clause vs. Commerce Clause
  28. Delegated Powers vs. Reserved Powers
  29. Delegated Powers vs. Implied Powers
  30. Enumerated Powers vs. Inherent Powers
  31. Formal Powers vs. Informal Powers
  32. Executive Agreement vs. Executive Order
  33. Office of Management and Budget vs. Congressional Budget Office
  34. White House Staff vs. Executive Office of POTUS
  35. Congressional Caucus vs. Nominating Caucus
  36. Congressional Caucus vs. Congressional Committee
  37. Majority Leader vs. Majority Whip
  38. President of Senate vs. Senate President Pro Tem
  39. Casework vs. Pork Barrel
  40. Standing Committee vs