Psychology: Development Across the Lifespan

Developmental Psychology

Introduction

• Developmental Psychology studies how individuals change over time.

Areas of Development

• Physical: Development of the body and physical skills.

• Cognitive: Development of thinking, reasoning, and learning abilities.

• Social-Emotional: Development of emotions, personality, and social skills.

Key Issues in Development

1. Nature vs. Nurture

   • Inquiry about how genetic inheritance (nature) and personal experiences (nurture) shape behavior.

2. Continuity vs. Stages

   • The debate on whether development is a gradual, continuous process or occurs in distinct stages.

3. Stability vs. Change

   • Discussion on whether early personality traits remain stable over time or change throughout life.

Continuity and Stages

• Researchers emphasize experience and learning for gradual development.

• Biological perspectives advocate for genetically predisposed stages of maturation, exemplified by psychologists like Piaget, Kohlberg, and Erikson.

Human Development Process

• Development progresses from zygote to birth in an ordered sequence.

  1. Fertilization of the egg forms a zygote.

  2. After approximately 14 days, the zygote becomes an embryo.

  3. At 9 weeks, the embryo is referred to as a fetus.

Teratogens

• Definition: Teratogens are harmful chemicals or viruses that can pass through the placenta and disrupt development.

• Infants are particularly susceptible during the first 2-8 weeks of gestation, with critical periods for both structural and functional defects.

The Competent Newborn

• Infants exhibit reflexes necessary for survival, such as the rooting reflex, which helps them find food.

• Cried signals: Infant cries prompt parental nurturing.

Brain Development

• Most brain cells are present at birth; however, neural networks expand rapidly postnatally.

• Selective pruning occurs during adolescence, where unused connections are eliminated to enhance efficiency.

• Neurons in the frontal cortex develop myelin which accelerates signal transmission; hormonal changes may result in impulsive behavior during adolescence.

• Maturation: The unfolding of brain development is dictated by genetic instructions, with various milestones occurring in a specific order.

Cognitive Development: Piaget's Theory

• Assimilation: Integrating new experiences into existing schemas (understandings).

• Accommodation: Adjusting schemas in response to new information.

Schemas Example

• A toddler, seeing a moose, mistakenly calls it a "cow," illustrating the processes of assimilation and accommodation as they learn new information.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to nearly 2 years)

   • Engage with the world through senses and actions.

   • Key Phenomena: Object permanence emerges.

2. Preoperational Stage (2 to about 6 or 7 years)

   • Representing the world through words and images; struggles with logical reasoning.

   • Key Phenomena: Egocentrism, language development.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (About 7 to 11 years)

   • Logical thought about concrete events and mastery of arithmetic.

   • Key Phenomena: Conservation, mathematical transformations.

4. Formal Operational Stage (About 12 through adulthood)

   • Abstract reasoning and potential for mature moral reasoning.

Current Thinking on Piaget's Theory

• Critics suggest that development is a continuous process.

• Children express cognitive abilities earlier than Piaget suggested.

• Formal logic is a smaller component of broader cognitive function.

Social-Emotional Development

• Focuses on temperament, attachment, and psychosocial stages:

  • Harlow's Research (1971): Demonstrated that infants form attachments based on contact comfort, not just nourishment.

  • Attachment Types:

  • Secure Attachment: 60% of children securely explore their environments when caregivers are present.

  • Insecure Attachment: Some children show clinginess and reluctance to explore.

Outcomes of Secure Attachment

• Correlate with positive traits such as self-confidence, independence, and social competence.

• Long-term consequences of deprivation of caregiving can include psychological issues.

Parenting Styles

1. Authoritarian: Strict rules with expectations of obedience.

2. Permissive: Soft, nurturing but reluctant to enforce rules.

3. Authoritative: High expectations combined with support and responsiveness.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

1. Preconventional Morality: Focus on avoiding punishment and seeking rewards (ages up to 9).

2. Conventional Morality: Upholding social rules and laws for their sake by early adolescence.

3. Postconventional Morality: Following self-chosen ethical principles and affirming agreed-upon rights.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Critique on Developmental Stages

• Doubts regarding the orderly progression through stages as suggested by Erikson. Mid-life crises are more likely triggered by significant life events, rather than age alone.

Well-Being Across the Life Span

• Life satisfaction is relatively stable across ages:

  • 80% of individuals report satisfaction with life as a whole in older age groups compared to younger ones.

Successful Aging Factors

1. Biological Influences:

   • Absence of genetic predispositions to diseases.

   • Positive neural changes affecting mood and cognition.

   • Adequate nutrition.

2. Psychological Influences:

   • Social engagement and a positive outlook contribute to resilience in aging.

   • Maintaining physical and mental activity enhances well-being.

3. Social-Cultural Influences:

   • Support systems from family and friends.

   • Access to meaningful activities and stable living conditions enhances quality of life.