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What is Politics?
Politics is a subset of social sciences.
Social Sciences: Defined as the scientific study of human society and social relationships.
Historical Context: Aristotle considered Political Science the 'master science'.
Purpose of Political Science:
Teaches skills in analytical thought, critical analysis, description, argumentation, and highlights the importance of balanced research.
Explains the reasons behind political events, how situations can be improved, and our understanding of societal knowledge.
Political Science Perspective
Some political scientists view the study of politics as inclusive of all power relationships.
Harold Laswell's Perspective: Politics can be summarized in the phrase "who gets what, how, and when".
Generally, political science focuses on decision-making processes related to governing a political community.
David Easton's Definition of Politics: "Authoritative allocation of values for a society."
Inquiry: What is meant by "allocation of values"?
Political Vocabulary and Concepts
Concept: A general idea that emerges from specific events or instances.
Political concepts are dual-faceted: they represent central political ideas while also being subjects of ongoing debates.
It is crucial to interpret these concepts as contributions to debates rather than unambiguous entities; they are contested.
Carl Schmitt's View: Every political concept can be understood as a polemical concept.
Key Concepts in Political Studies
Body Politic: The entirety of a political community.
Order: A condition characterized by regularity and stability among units and interactions within a political system, enforced by accepted rules and structures.
Types of Political Order
Democracy: A political system where governance necessitates the consent of citizens through electoral participation, articulation of views, and representation in governance.
Monarchy: A governmental form led by a single ruler with at least nominally absolute power.
Aristocracy: Governance by a privileged class, often predicated on birth, wealth, or education, viewed as more qualified to govern due to superior knowledge and experience.
Political Systems
System: A collective of individual entities or actors that interact to form a comprehensive whole.
International System: A framework of multiple actors that engage regularly on the global stage, utilizing established processes within specific issues.
Organizations: Structured relationships in a political community that allocate responsibilities and privileges.
Institutions: Groups that have evolved to address specific societal needs.
Basic Concepts: Power
Power: Defined as the ability to achieve objectives by influencing the behavior of others, specifically in ways they would not independently choose to undertake.
Political power can be exerted via:
Coercion: Forcing compliance.
Inducements: Offering incentives.
Persuasion: Convincing through argument.
Leadership: Guiding others towards objectives.
Understanding Power Dynamics
The determination of who is powerful within a community is often complex and contentious.
Power can also be exerted through control of the political agenda.
The Three Faces of Power:
First Face: Directly affecting decisions (direct power).
Second Face: Preventing issues from being raised (indirect power).
Third Face: Shaping dominant societal ideas (comprising both direct and indirect power).
Power is often perceived as both dominative and as a means to achieve collective goals.
The Dual Nature of Power
Negative Aspects of Power: Often associated with exploitation and domination, where governments may misuse power for harmful ends.
Positive Use of Power: Power can foster cooperation and help address issues like the free-rider problem illustrated by the Tragedy of the Commons.
Authority and Legitimacy
Authority: Represents the recognized right to exercise power.
Sources of authority include God, tradition, legal frameworks, and elections.
Legitimacy: The acceptance of authority among the governed, allows a legitimate government to rely more on authority than coercion.
Max Weber’s Types of Authority:
Charismatic Authority: Based on personal qualities of the leader, which may include extraordinary capabilities.
Traditional Authority: Rooted in customs, such as monarchs.
Legal-rational Authority: Founded on legal rules and procedures, typical of modern societies.
Summary of Authority Concepts
Authority: The power or right to enforce obedience.
Traditional: Transferable through generations.
Rational-legal: Dependent on rules and norms.
Charismatic: Based on unique individual traits.
Legitimacy: Aligns with what is lawful, appropriate, and considered proper in a political system.
Political Action and Influence
Leadership: A collective group that directs societal governance.
Agency: Refers to actions taken by individuals or groups in a social context that can instigate change.
Power: The capability to achieve political goals and compel others to comply with those actions.
Influence: The mechanisms through which individuals or groups persuade others to fulfill their aims.
Values in Politics
Values: Principles and standards that are meaningful to individuals and communities.
Equality: Gleichheit within a political system.
Social Order: Recognized structures of power and associated responsibilities and liberties.
Security: The desire for freedom from danger and injury.
Progress: The notion of societal advancement toward improved conditions, integral to liberal political theory.
Continued Exploration of Values
Justice: Maintaining fairness within society.
Social Justice: Equitable distribution of goods and societal resources.
Economic Justice: Redistribution of resources among various societal groups.
Liberty: Freedom from authoritarian control.
Closely related to freedom is the ability to act without constraints.
Perspectives on Liberty (Isaiah Berlin)
Negative Liberty: Refers to areas of life where government does not intervene, granting individuals the "right" to make their choices freely.
Examples include lifestyle choices.
Positive Liberty: Represents the freedom necessary to achieve one’s fullest potential, which may involve government intervention facilitating this potential.
Additional Values
Welfare: Legislative efforts or actions aimed at providing citizens with assistance in various aspects like health, finance, etc.
Hierarchy of Values: Inquiry into whether values can be prioritized.
Rights in Society
Liberties: Closely aligned with citizens' rights.
Civil Rights: Rights enjoyed differently across political systems.
Human Rights: Considered fundamental and inalienable rights that cannot be surrendered.
Hierarchy of Rights: Discussion on whether there exists a priority among various rights.
Community and Identity
Community: The social, political, cultural, and economic connections between individuals.
Identity: How individuals understand and express their uniqueness or belonging to a group.
The Concept of the State
State: A recognized political unit identified as sovereign, with a designated territory, populace, and a central government responsible for governance.
Sovereignty: Recognition by other political authorities about the legitimacy and rights of a governing body over its community.
Nation and Nation-State
Nation: A collective of individuals sharing an identity based on common ethnic, religious, cultural, or linguistic traits.
Nation-State: A self-governing political entity where people share a predominant culture, language, ethnicity, or historical background.
The Common Good
Members of political communities often have divergent interests and values.
Individualist Perspective: Suggests that self-interest leads to the best outcome for the community, although critics argue for the necessity of social interaction.
Pluralist System: Acknowledges multiple groups that demand government responsiveness and satisfaction.
The Contemporary View on Common Good
In modern governance, democracy is considered the most effective method for pursuing the common good.
Distinction: The common good of a nation may differ from that of other communities (local, provincial, or global).
Historical Context: Generally perceived concerning present conditions, though there's a call to consider future generations' quality of life.
Looking Ahead: Communities and Future Considerations
The divergence between the common good of a country and other political communities may raise questions.
Globalization has fostered individual independence, leading to diminished shared interests.
Ethical Debate: Should future generations’ common good be central to our current decision-making, despite their lack of voice? Economic growth, including its link to climate change, is a pressing concern.