chapter 1 bew world begginge

Incas – A highly advanced civilization in South America (Peru region), known for terrace farming and an extensive road system. Conquered by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro in the 1530s.

Aztecs – A powerful empire in central Mexico, with its capital at Tenochtitlán. Known for agriculture, trade, and human sacrifice. Conquered by Hernán Cortés in 1521.

Three-sister farming – An agricultural method used by Native Americans where maize, beans, and squash were grown together; beans restored nitrogen, squash provided ground cover, maize provided a stalk for beans to climb.

Cahokia – A Mississippian culture city near present-day St. Louis; once home to 20,000–40,000 people. Known for its large earthen mounds.

Canadian Shield – A massive geological plateau in northeast North America, shaped by glaciers; first part of the continent to emerge above sea level.

Caravel – A small, fast Portuguese sailing ship with lateen sails that allowed for better navigation against winds and currents; enabled European exploration of Africa and the Americas.

Plantation – Large-scale agricultural estates that relied on slave or coerced labor to grow cash crops like sugar, tobacco, and later cotton. Introduced by Europeans in the Caribbean and Americas.

Columbian Exchange – The global transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and people between the Old World (Europe, Africa, Asia) and the New World (Americas) after 1492.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) – Agreement between Spain and Portugal, brokered by the Pope, dividing the New World between them along a north-south line. Spain received most of the Americas; Portugal got Brazil and rights in Africa/Asia.

Encomienda – Spanish labor system that granted colonists the right to demand tribute and forced labor from Native Americans in exchange for supposed protection and Christianization.

Mestizos – People of mixed European and Native American ancestry in Spanish America; became a major social group in the colonial caste system.

Battle of Acoma (1599) – Conflict between Spanish conquistadors and the Acoma Pueblo in present-day New Mexico. The Spanish brutally crushed resistance, cutting off survivors’ feet and enslaving many.

Pueblo Revolt (1680) – Uprising of Pueblo Indians in New Mexico against Spanish religious suppression and forced labor. They expelled the Spanish for over a decade, one of the most successful Native revolts against Europeans.

Black Legend – The belief (spread mainly by Spain’s European rivals) that the Spanish only brought death, disease, torture, and slavery to the Americas. While partly propaganda, it emphasized Spanish cruelty toward Natives.

Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain – The Catholic monarchs who united Spain through marriage. They financed Columbus’s voyage in 1492, seeking to spread Christianity and expand Spanish power.

Christopher Columbus – Italian explorer sailing for Spain; “discovered” the New World in 1492 while seeking a westward route to Asia. His voyages opened the door for European colonization.

Francisco Coronado – Spanish conquistador who explored the American Southwest (1540s), looking for mythical “Seven Cities of Gold.” Found the Grand Canyon and buffalo herds instead.

Francisco Pizarro – Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire in Peru in the 1530s, seizing wealth and expanding Spanish influence in South America.

Bartolomé de Las Casas – Spanish priest who opposed the mistreatment of Native Americans under the encomienda system; advocated for indigenous rights, though he later suggested African slavery as an alternative.

Hernán Cortés – Spanish conquistador who defeated the Aztec Empire (1519–1521) with help from Native allies and disease. Captured Tenochtitlán, establishing Spanish control over Mexico.

Moctezuma (Montezuma II) – The last Aztec emperor, defeated by Cortés. Initially welcomed the Spanish, but later killed during the conquest of Tenochtitlán.

Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot) – Italian explorer sailing for England (1497); claimed land in present-day Canada for England, giving them a foothold in the New World.

Robert de La Salle – French explorer who traveled down the Mississippi River (1680s), claiming the Mississippi Valley and Louisiana territory for France.

Father Junípero Serra – Spanish missionary who founded the first California missions (starting in San Diego, 1769). His missions aimed to convert Native Americans but also led to disease, forced labor, and cultural destruction.