English (all coverage topics and concepft for periodical test)

📘 English Comprehensive Reviewer

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I. Poetry Basics

Poetry – a literary form that uses imaginative language, rhythm, sound devices, and figures of speech to express emotions, tell a story, or present ideas in a concentrated style.

Meter – the structured pattern of stressed (´) and unstressed (˘) syllables in a line of poetry. It gives poems a musical quality.

Pattern – the arrangement or structure used in poetry, which may include rhyme scheme, meter, stanza form, and repetition.

Rhythm – the overall beat and pace of a poem, produced by the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables.

Stanza – a group of lines in a poem, often separated by space; functions like a paragraph in prose. Stanzas may follow a set rhyme or rhythm.

Rhyme – repetition of similar sounds at the ends of words, often at the end of lines. It makes poems musical and memorable.

Verse – a single line of poetry OR poetry in general (opposite of prose).

Tone – the poet’s attitude toward the subject matter, which can be serious, joyful, bitter, sarcastic, hopeful, etc.

Style – the distinct way a poet writes, which includes choice of words (diction), structure, figures of speech, and sound devices.

Mood – the atmosphere or emotion felt by the reader, such as suspenseful, gloomy, cheerful, or romantic.

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II. Types of Poetry

1. Lyric Poetry – short, musical poems expressing emotions, thoughts, or feelings rather than telling a story. Examples: sonnet, ode, elegy.

2. Narrative Poetry – tells a story with characters, plot, and setting, usually in verse. Examples: epics, ballads, metrical romances.

3. Dramatic Poetry – written in verse and meant to be spoken by characters, often in plays or monologues. Example: Shakespeare’s plays in verse.

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III. Conflict in Literature

Conflict – the struggle between opposing forces that drives the plot.

Types of Conflict:

Man vs. Man – character struggles against another person.

Man vs. Self – internal struggle with decisions, morals, or emotions.

Man vs. Nature – character faces survival against natural elements (storms, animals, disasters).

Man vs. Society – conflict with traditions, rules, or expectations of society.

Man vs. Supernatural – struggle with forces beyond nature (fate, gods, ghosts, magic).

Man vs. Technology – conflict with modern inventions, machines, or AI.

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IV. Plot

Plot – the sequence of events in a story, structured to create conflict and resolution.

Elements of Plot:

1. Exposition – introduction of characters, setting, and background.

2. Rising Action – events and conflicts that build suspense and lead to climax.

3. Climax – the turning point; moment of greatest tension where conflict peaks.

4. Falling Action – events after the climax leading toward resolution.

5. Resolution/Denouement – conclusion where conflicts are solved or the story ends.

Types of Plot:

Linear Plot – events are told in chronological order (beginning → middle → end).

Non-Linear Plot – events are not in order; may use flashbacks, foreshadowing, or circular structure.

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V. Characters

Character – the people, animals, or figures in a story.

Types of Characters:

Round – complex, fully developed, realistic.

Dynamic – undergoes significant change in personality or attitude.

Flat – simple, one-dimensional, limited traits.

Static – does not change throughout the story.

Protagonist – the main character, often the hero.

Antagonist – opposes the protagonist, often the villain.

Characterization:

Direct/Explicit – author directly describes traits.

Indirect/Implicit – reader infers traits from actions, thoughts, or dialogue.

SMART method:

Speech – what the character says.

Manner/Looks – physical appearance and behavior.

Actions – what the character does.

Reactions – how others respond to the character.

Thoughts – inner feelings and beliefs.

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VI. Rhyme & Rhythm

Types of Rhyme Schemes:

Couplet – two consecutive lines rhyme (AA).

Alternate – every other line rhymes (ABAB).

Monorhyme – all lines rhyme with the same sound (AAAA).

Enclosed Rhyme – first and last lines rhyme, enclosing the middle lines (ABBA).

Rhythm & Meter:

Meter – the basic rhythmic structure in a line of poetry.

Iambic – ˘ ´ (unstressed + stressed). Example: “aWAY.”

Trochaic – ´ ˘ (stressed + unstressed). Example: “TAble.”

Syllables – the unit of sound; meter is based on counting syllables and stress patterns.

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VII. Filipino Literary Forms

Tanaga – 4 lines, 7 syllables each, with rhyme (expresses deep meaning).

Awit – 12 syllables per line, themes of love and romance.

Corrido – 8 syllables per line, themes of adventure, chivalry, religion.

Haiku – Japanese form, 3 lines with 5-7-5 syllables; nature-focused.

Free Verse / Malayang Taludturan – no fixed rhyme or meter; free expression.

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VIII. Patterns & Motifs in Poetry

Patterns – recurring structures in poetry: rhyme scheme, stanza form, meter, repetition.

Motifs – recurring themes or symbols that reinforce meaning.

Common motifs: Nature, Time, Journey, Family, Relationships.

Style, Pattern, and Motifs – when combined, they create a poem’s artistic effect and deeper meaning.

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IX. Figures of Speech

Simile – comparison using like or as.

Metaphor – direct comparison without like/as.

Personification – giving human qualities to non-human objects.

Hyperbole – deliberate exaggeration for effect.

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X. Sound Devices

Oxymoron – two opposite ideas joined together (e.g., “bittersweet”).

Onomatopoeia – words that imitate natural sounds (buzz, hiss).

Alliteration – repetition of initial consonant sounds.

Assonance – repetition of vowel sounds within words.

Consonance – repetition of consonant sounds, usually at the end or middle of words.

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XI. Point of View (POV)

First Person – narrator is part of the story; uses “I” or “we.”

Second Person – narrator addresses reader directly as “you.”

Third Person – narrator tells the story about others:

Omniscient – knows everything about all characters.

Limited – focuses on thoughts/feelings of one character.

Objective – only actions and dialogue, no inner thoughts.

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XII. Literary Techniques in Narratives

Foreshadowing – hints of future events.

Cliffhanger – suspenseful ending to a chapter/scene.

Flashback – recalling past events.

Pathetic Fallacy – nature reflects mood/emotions.

Plot Twist – unexpected change in story direction.

Red Herring – misleading clue.

Epiphany – sudden realization by character.

Parody – humorous imitation of a serious work.

Organic Unity – all elements work together to create meaning.

Coherence – logical flow and connection of ideas.

Unity of Purpose – all parts serve one central idea.

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XIII. Context in Literature

Historical Context – how the time period and events influence a text.

Social-Cultural Context – how traditions, values, and society shape meaning.

Biographical Context – how an author’s life experiences influence their work.

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XIV. Maxim, Universal Truths & Philosophies

Maxim – short, wise sayings that express moral lessons (e.g., “Honesty is the best policy”).

Universal Truths – facts or realities that apply to all people (e.g., “Everyone will die someday”).

Philosophies – deeper principles or beliefs about life, morality, and existence.